92. Verbs with an Object + “as”

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Some verbs with an object complement need “as” before it and some do not

“AS” AFTER THE OBJECT OF A VERB

As is quite commonly used before a noun-like or adjective-like expression in order to link it with a preceding verb and its object:

(a) Local people see tourists AS a source of income.

Here, as is linking the noun-like phrase a source of income with the verb see (= consider) and its object tourists. The phrase is describing tourists and could be replaced by an adjective, e.g. generous.

In grammar, a noun or adjective linked as above with a preceding verb + object is called an “object complement” (see 220. Features of Complements, #1). The link must be with the verb as well as the object – otherwise the structure is likely to be one of “apposition” (see 77. Pairing of Same-Meaning Nouns). Moreover, if there are two nouns after a linking verb, they must refer to the same person or thing – otherwise the one that is not the object will probably be an indirect object rather than a complement (see 126. Verbs with an Indirect Object).

A noteworthy feature of object complements is that if the verb in their sentence is made passive, its object becoming its subject, the same complement can still be present, but now as a “subject complement”:

(b) Tourists are seen (by local people) AS a source of income.

The problem with as before object (and subject) complements is that it is not always possible. In the following sentence, as would be grammatically incorrect before the object complement an invalid:

(c) Some injuries leave the victim … an invalid for life.

Sentences like this raise the obvious question of how we can tell when and when not to use as before an object complement. It is this problem that the present post is primarily about. In addressing it, the post also offers an extensive list of verbs that can take an object complement irrespective of any need for as.

For other as discussions, see 53. “As”, “Like” and “Such As”,  104. Naming Data Sources with “As”,  183. Statements between Commas,  225. Simultaneous Occurrence and 279. Grammatical Differences between Citation Verbs.

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CLUES FOR USING COMPLEMENT-SHOWING “as”

The simple determinant of the need for as before an object complement is the choice of verb: SEE in (a) requires it while LEAVE in (c) forbids it. Most of the verbs with an object complement are like either SEE or LEAVE, but a few allow a choice concerning as, or change their meaning with it added. There is no obvious reason why each verb has its own particular requirement. Memorisation often seems the surest way to avoid error.

It could be, however, that some clues concerning as are obtainable from the kinds of meanings of verbs with an object complement. To explore this possibility, the next section offers a meaning-based classification of these verbs, along with an indication of which verbs can, cannot and must have as.

The classification shows three fundamental meaning groups: those whose object complement is a name, those where it represents a role or objective description, and those where it represents a personal perception. However, I consider some role names unable to be an object complement:

(d) It is illegal to employ children as factory workers.

The underlined words here indicate more a temporary than a permanent role, and as before them can be paraphrased with in the role of. This gives the combination more the feel of an adverb phrase than a complement one (see 53. “As”, “Like” and “Such As”), suggesting that EMPLOY should perhaps be ruled out as a complement-taking verb.

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VERBS ALLOWING AN OBJECT COMPLEMENT

In addition to the three main meaning groups proposed above, the classification below has subgroups according to whether or not the object complement meaning is being newly associated with the object. Compare, for example, the following uses of CALL:

(e) Doctors call the tube that carries food to the stomach the oesophagus.

(f) Columbus called the first island he reached San Salvador.

Here, (e) is not describing the first attachment of the name oesophagus to the tube…: an ongoing tradition is being conveyed. Sentence (f), on the other hand, does describe the first attachment of the name San Salvador to the island in question. The use of LEAVE in (c) resembles this second use of CALL. For more on the difference between repeating and originating an action, see 238. Using a Verb to Perform its Action.

In the following classification, “(AS)” next to a verb means as is optional, “AS” that it is compulsory. Verbs marked * can optionally have to be before the object complement instead of as or no word at all (e.g. established the victim as/to be alive: see 192. When BE can be Omitted). My judgements of where to be is possible are subjective – other analysts might disagree. Nevertheless, the possibility of to be seems random but quite common, except with name verbs.

Naming Verbs

+ New Name
DUB
BAPTISE
CHRISTEN
NAME

+ Existing Name
ALLUDE TO… AS…
IDENTIFY… AS…
KNOW…AS…

+ Either
CALL
DESIGNATE (… AS…)
LABEL (…AS…)
REFER TO… AS…
SPEAK OF… AS…
TERM

Role & Description Verbs

+ New Role/Description
APPOINT* (…AS…)
CHOOSE*… AS…
COLOUR
CROWN
DECLARE*
ELECT* (…AS…)
ESTABLISH*… AS…
LEAVE
MAKE
NAME*… AS…
NOMINATE*… AS…
PAINT (= cover with paint)
PRONOUNCE*
TAKE (someone prisoner)
TRAIN*… AS…

+ Existing Role/Description
CITE… AS…
IDENTIFY*… AS…
KEEP (= maintain)
KNOW… AS…
MENTION… AS…
NAME…AS…
POINT OUT*… AS…

+ Either
ACKNOWLEDGE*… AS…
CALL
CATEGORISE… AS…
CHARACTERISE … AS …
CLASS… AS…
CLASSIFY… AS…
CONDEMN… AS…
CRITICISE…AS…
DEFINE… AS…
DEMONISE… AS…
DEPICT… AS…
DESCRIBE… AS…
DISTINGUISH… AS…
EVALUATE*… AS…
EXPRESS… AS…
GLORIFY… AS…
HIGHLIGHT… AS…
IDENTIFY*… AS…
INCLUDE … AS…
LABEL (…AS…)
MARK… AS…
MENTION… AS…
PAINT* (= describe)… AS…
PORTRAY*… AS…
PRAISE… AS…
PRESENT*… AS…
PROCLAIM* … AS…
RECOGNISE*… AS…
REFER TO… AS…
REPRESENT… AS…
SHOW … AS…
SINGLE OUT… AS…
SPEAK OF… AS…

Belief & Imagination Verbs

ACCEPT… AS…
BELIEVE*
CONCEPTUALISE… AS…
CONSIDER* (= believe)
CONSIDER… AS… (= imagine)
ESTIMATE*… AS…
FIND*
IMAGINE*… AS…
INTEND*… AS…
INTERPRET*… AS…
JUDGE*
LOOK ON…AS…
PERCEIVE*… AS…
PICTURE*… AS…
PROPOSE… AS…
RATE* (… AS…)
RECOMMEND… AS…
REGARD*… AS…
REJECT… AS…
SEE*… AS…
SUGGEST… AS…
TAKE*… AS…
THINK*
THINK OF… AS…
TREAT… AS…
UNDERSTAND*… AS…
VIEW… AS…
VISUALISE*… AS…
WANT*… AS…

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OBSERVATIONS ABOUT THE VERBS

Most of the verbs have a noun sometimes or always as their object complement. However, COLOUR and PAINT (= cover in paint) always have adjectives (see 278. Colours).

Many of the verbs are common in academic writing. For example, CALL, DEFINE, DESCRIBE, EVALUATE, FIND and CONSIDER often report as “citation” verbs (see 279. Grammatical Differences between Citation Verbs, #4), and are also characteristic of essays (see 94. Essay Instruction Words).

Some of the verbs can replace the noun or adjective after their object with an -ing verb. For example, after leave their victims… in sentence (c), one can say …suffering instead of …an invalid. Other verbs with this possibility include KEEP, RECOGNISE, SEE, VISUALISE, WANT and SEE (see 232. Verbs with an Object + “-ing”). I am not including this use as an object complement one.

Most of the verbs listed as always indicating a new link between their complement and object can actually convey an existing one when made passive. For example was baptised John could refer not just to the moment when the name John was newly given, but also to the state of having received it earlier (see 66. Types of Passive Verb Meaning).

With regard to the use of as, in general far more verbs require or allow it than disallow it. Naming verbs that disallow it are the four in the first subgroup (which always express a new name attachment), plus CALL and TERM in the third (which sometimes do). In category 2 (role & description verbs) half in the first subgroup (7 out of 15) disallow as. In the second subgroup, there is only KEEP (I consider purpose-indicating as after KEEP – e.g. keep sth as a souvenir – to be adverbial). In category 3, the only non-as verbs are BELIEVE, CONSIDER (= believe), FIND, JUDGE and THINK.

The need to include as so much more than to exclude it perhaps partly explains the common error of adding as after some of the verbs in the first two groups. Naming verbs like CALL are particularly often given an incorrect as (see 140. Words with Unexpected Grammar 2, #g, and 250. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar, #4).

Also notable is that as when not disallowed is overwhelmingly compulsory. A choice about using it is only possible with DESIGNATE in category 1, APPOINT, ELECT and LABEL in category 2, and RATE in category 3.

It will be observed that some verbs are listed twice above, sometimes with different as requirements. KNOW, LABEL, REFER TO and SPEAK OF appear in both category 1 and 2. Their ability to have a description as their object complement as well as a name may be illustrated as follows:

(g) (+ NAME) English speakers know Munchen as Munich.

(h) (+ DESCRIPTION) English people know William of Normandy as an invader.

It is also possible to use KNOW with to be instead of as before a descriptive noun or adjective, but the meaning changes subtly. In (h), the description expressed by as and the complement an invader is subjective – special to English people. With to be instead of as, descriptions are suggested to be objective facts, also expressible with know that…:

(i) The police know the fugitive to be a dangerous killer.

NAME is listed three times in categories 1 and 2. The use without as (in the first subgroup of category 1) is naming. The first use with as (category 1, subgroup 2) typically puts it before a name and is identifying (see 206. Ways of Conveying a Name). By contrast, the third use (in category 2) has a name before as and a role after (e.g. …as the successor). This I call “decreeing” (see 236. Tricky Word Contrasts 9, #2).

The two mentions of CONSIDER in category 3 again associate different meanings with different as requirements. For details of these meanings, see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #3.

Three other verbs worth mentioning are MAKE (category 2), SEE (category 3) and TAKE (category 3). MAKE is shown not to be usable with to be (despite a rare use that it has with be alone: see 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #3). Non-usability with to be may seem surprising when verbs resembling MAKE in meaning, such as ARRANGE FOR and CAUSE, do need it (see 140. Words with Unexpected Grammar 2, #h). These latter verbs are not listed above because they always need to be, which I exclude as an object complement feature.

SEE is typical in allowing either as or to be without a change of meaning. However, it has meaning-changing possibilities too (see 315. Ways of Using SEE), including be without to (see 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1, #6).

TAKE is atypical in having different meanings with as and to be. Both indicate a supposition, but as additionally implies action based on it (see 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE, #15 and #16).

91. Pronunciation in Reading Aloud

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Reading aloud in English makes numerous linguistic demands on top of the ordinary non-linguistic ones

THE NATURE OF READING ALOUD

Reading aloud is a quite common activity in academic and professional life. It is not recommended for speeches or oral presentations (see 186. Language in Oral Presentations), but it can be useful for reporting written content to others (e.g. stories, religious readings or news items). The ability to read well, however, rarely comes easily: even reading aloud in one’s mother tongue calls for a range of special non-linguistic skills, many of the kind also needed for acting. Reading aloud in a new language is obviously much harder again.

The English language presents plenty of difficulties in this respect, possessing a number of areas that typically trip up readers lacking a deep familiarity with it. In this post I wish first to look briefly at non-linguistic skills for reading aloud, and then to consider in detail how the English language itself is likely to give problems to speakers of other languages when they attempt to read it aloud.

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NON-LINGUISTIC (DELIVERY) SKILLS FOR READING ALOUD

The kind of skills that make the difference between good and bad mother-tongue readers are similar to those needed for successful acting. The following seem to be among the most important.

(i) Rehearsing the reading beforehand, so that even the difficult parts become smooth.

(ii) Maximising eye-contact with the audience. Keeping a finger under the words as you read them allows you to look up regularly without losing your place in the text.

(iii) Concentrating on the message of what you are reading, and not the language.

(iv) Reading at the right pace: too slow is better than too fast, especially if your pronunciation is poor.

(v) Pausing in the right places. Pauses are needed more often than at punctuation marks (see 50. Right & Wrong Comma Places), but not after every word. Sentences consist of “sense groups” – groups of words that naturally go together, for example to make the subject of the sentence or an adverbial – and pauses normally come before and after sense groups. They also often precede emphasised words.

(vi) Speaking with the right volume. It is particularly important not to speak too quietly.

(vii) Highlighting important and contrasting ideas by emphasising the words that carry them.

A few ideas for developing these skills can be read in the article within this blog entitled Should language learners ever be asked to read aloud in class?

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LINGUISTIC SKILLS FOR READING ALOUD

Some of the most important English Language skills are as follows.

1. Pronouncing Unfamiliar Words

This is perhaps the most obvious linguistic problem that English gives to speakers of other languages. The main causes are the unreliability of English spelling (illustrated within this blog in posts like 29. Illogical Vowel Spellings,  86. The Pronunciation of “e” and “i” and 155. Silent Consonants) and the unpredictability of word stress. Happily, the solution is quite easy: checking the pronunciation in a dictionary whilst rehearsing.

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2. Converting Non-Linguistic Symbols to their Spoken Form

Non-linguistic symbols do not contain letters and hence give no clues to their correct pronunciation. The commonest are numbers. Pitfalls in pronouncing numbers and associated symbols are extensively analysed in this blog in 67. Numbers in Spoken English. As an example, 3-digit numbers like 374 need when read aloud to include the word and after hundred. 

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3. Pronouncing Difficult Sounds

Since no two languages have exactly the same sounds – and even the ones that are similar may be used in different ways – reading aloud in a new language involves pronouncing unfamiliar sounds. This is not always a difficulty, but errors are normal as well. Readers may or may not be aware of their mispronunciations. The less obvious ones can be discovered by asking another person to listen to rehearsals. Exercises to practise problem sounds can then be used.

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4. Stressing the Right Syllables

Words are made up of syllables. In English, syllables are pronounced strongly or weakly, being usually called “stressed” in the first case, “unstressed” otherwise (see 125. Stress and Emphasis). Most words have just one stressed syllable, with or without a variable number of unstressed ones. Exceptions are some one-syllable words of a grammatical nature, such as of, the and would, which have no stressed syllable at all.

It is very important to stress the right syllable in a multi-syllable word. Here are some words where learners of English often stress the wrong syllable. Readers are invited to name the syllables they think are stressed and then check the answers at the bottom of this page.

QUIZ: Name the stressed syllable in each word (answers below)

agreement, argument, appreciated, challenge, committee, complaint, descent, detailed, determine, development, forfeit, management, opponent, organised, prevalent, purchase, recognise, resit, response, seventy, success, surprise, welcome.

Stress errors are much more likely than mispronounced sounds to escape your notice when you read aloud. Studying lists like the above can help to reduce errors, as can asking another person to listen to reading rehearsals.

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5. Pronouncing Unstressed Vowels

A major aspect of spoken English is the tendency of vowel letters to be pronounced differently according to whether or not their syllable is stressed. Stress causes vowels to be pronounced as we would normally expect, but without it the pronunciation frequently becomes either /Ə/ or /ı/. For example, stressed “u” in inDUStrial sounds the same as in cut, but unstressed in INdustry it has the /Ə/ sound instead. More on this is in the posts 41. Unexpected Vowels in Derived Words and 125. Stress and Emphasis, while 86. The Pronunciation of “e” and “i” offers some guidelines on when to say /ı/ instead of /Ə/).

Many speakers whose mother tongue is not English pronounce all English vowels in their primary way, without changing them to /Ə/ or /ı/ as necessary. Being able to make these changes can considerably improve pronunciation. Observing their occurrence in the speech of expert users is one improvement strategy; checking word pronunciations in a dictionary is another (see 202. Some Strategies for Learning English, #3).

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6. Adapting Pronunciations to Neighbouring Sounds

When certain sounds combine with certain other sounds in their own or an adjacent word, their pronunciation subtly changes, even though their spelling usually remains the same. A word that undergoes a fairly well-known change of this kind is the: pronounced with /Ə/ before consonants and /ı/ before vowels. Other important changes are:

(i) Consonant Transfer. When the first of two closely-linked words ends with a consonant and the second begins with a vowel (as in loG On, darK Eyes or caN Open), the consonant is often said as if it started the second word (lo gon, dar keyes, ca nopen). This is true even when the final consonant of the first word has a silent vowel after it, as in come out.

(ii) Consonant Lengthening. This occurs when the same consonant sound ends one word and begins the next, as in can never, with the and enough food. Instead of saying the sound twice, it sounds more natural to say it once but with more time than usual.

(iii) Consonant Reduction. This usually involves the so-called “plosive” consonants: /p, t, k, b, d, g/. Their pronunciation is likely to be reduced when either they precede another consonant (e.g. seT Down, suBMit) or end a sense group (e.g. come to a stoP, hold ouT). A full explanation of this area is downloadable from the Learning Materials page of this blog (sheet #12). For some grammar misunderstandings that it can cause, see 144. Words that are Often Heard Wrongly.

For some more changes like these see 243. Pronunciation Secrets, #2.

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7. Using Intonation

Whole books have been written on the nature and uses of English intonation. Here I just want to mention two uses that are especially important for reading aloud. The first is showing whether or not a sentence is finished – corresponding on the one hand to full stops and semi-colons, and on the other to commas, colons and dashes. Full stops are normally indicated with a falling tone on the word before, the others by a fall-rise. The most common error is to use the full stop tone in the wrong place. This happens particularly before colons and in the middle of lists. It is very disconcerting for a listener to hear a list continued when intonation has signalled its end.

The other important use of intonation is for emphasis. Listening to a text is much more interesting if important and contrasting words are emphasised. The kind of intonation that creates emphasis can be thought of as an extra strong form of stress (see 125. Stress & Emphasis).

Further information about intonation in reading aloud can be downloaded from the Learning Materials page of this blog (sheet #13).

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ANSWERS TO QUIZ ON STRESS: The stressed syllable is underlined in each word below. For more about committee, see 135. French Influences on English Vocabulary, #1.

agreement, argument, appreciated, challenge, committee, complaint, descent, detailed, determine, development, forfeit, management, opponent, organised, prevalent, purchase, recognise, resit, response, seventy, success, surprise, welcome.