227. Time Adverbs

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English has numerous time adverbs, with varying grammatical properties

THE CHALLENGE OF TIME ADVERBS

Most people are familiar with common time adverbs like now, yesterday and soon. What is less appreciated, however, is that English has a surprisingly large number of time adverbs, some of which are very unlikely to be encountered at elementary or even intermediate level. Part of the reason for such variety is that, when we come to think seriously about what is meant by “time”, we quickly find that it can be understood in different ways, each of which possesses its own range of vocabulary.

In this post I wish to examine the different meanings of “expressing time” and to present as complete a list as I can of adverbs under each heading. In the process I hope to identify and explain the difference between words that are either very close in meaning or typically confused by advanced learners of English. I will also say something about grammatical usage, which with adverbs usually means sentence positions.

Excluded as adverbs here are adverb phrases, such as most of the time, after this or for good. Many of these are listed in 85. Preposition Phrases & Corresponding Adverbs, and there is also something useful in 169. “All”, “Each” and “Every”.

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TIME ADVERB CATEGORIES

The meaning category of an adverb is fairly easily discoverable by considering which question word it is associated with (see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs, #1). 

The most obvious time question word – answered by all three adverbs listed earlier – is when (= point in time). Less obvious are the time question words how often (= frequency, answered by adverbs like frequently) and how long (= duration, answered by adverbs like briefly). All of these question words are themselves time adverbs (see 285. Complexities of Question Words).

Within each group of time adverbs there are also some notable subdivisions.

Point-in-Time Adverbs

These adverbs can generally occupy either the start of a sentence or the middle (next to the verb) or the end. They may indicate a point relative to “now” or relative to another event or situation. They reinforce but cannot replace the meaning of verb tenses (see 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #1).

1. Points Relative to “Now”

These may be “now”, “before now” or “after now”. The corresponding adverbs include:

(I) NOW: currently, now, nowadays, presently, this… (week, month etc.), today.

Nowadays typically suggests a contrast with the past (see 157. Tricky Word Contrasts 5, #2), while presently can contrast with the future. Today often indicates the general present. Now is perhaps preferred for briefer or recently-established present situations.

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(II) BEFORE NOW: ago, already, before, formerly, historically, hitherto, just, last… (Monday, week, month etc.), last (= the last time), lately, once, previously, recently, then, this week (etc.), yesterday.

Underlining here indicates need or ability to accompany a verb in the present perfect tense (with HAVE) rather than the past simple.

Yesterday can refer just to the past in general. Once expresses either an unrepeated past occurrence or one of many (see 282. Features of History Writing, #7). Ago must follow a period noun (e.g. months ago).

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(III) AFTER NOW: henceforth, imminently, next, next… (week etc.), presently (British English), shortly, soon, this… (Monday, week etc.), tomorrow

Henceforth means “continuously from now”, while soon indicates a delayed future start. Tomorrow can mean the future in general.

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2. Points Relative to another Event / Situation

The subdivisions here are “then” (= that same past / future time), “before then” and “after then”. Many of the words are also classified as “connectors”, showing links between separate sentences and typically positioned near the start of their sentence (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors).

Common contexts are sequence descriptions (historical narrative, laboratory instructions, process descriptions, etc.) and introductions to written or spoken exposition (see 186. Language in Oral Presentations, #1).

Examples are:

(I) THEN: concurrently, meanwhile, simultaneously, then, throughout

A key differentiator of these is the relative durations of the two events / situations. For details, see 225. Simultaneous Occurrence.

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(II) BEFORE THEN: already, before, beforehand, early, earlier, first, formerly, initially, previously.

Beforehand suggests immediately before – otherwise before, earlier or previously are preferable. Whereas earlier means “previously”, early means “near the beginning”. For a difference between first and firstly, see 20. Problem Connectors, #8.

When referring to the past, beforehand, first and initially may accompany a verb in the past simple or past perfect tense:

(a) First a value was (or had been) entered. Then the program was run.

The past simple (was) places the event within the focus of the description, while the past perfect (had been) places it outside (see 171. Aspects of the Past Perfect Tense). The other adverbs in the list more typically require the past perfect.

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(III) AFTER THEN: after, afterwards, at once, eventually, finally, immediately, lastly, later, next, now, secondly (etc.), subsequently, then, thenceforth, thereafter, thereupon

Here, “etc.” after secondly represents the entire sequence of ordinal adverbs (thirdly, fourthly…).

Note the presence of now in the list . It could, for example, replace then in (a). Note also that subsequently is commoner in descriptions than instructions.

After is unusual in not normally acting as a connector (after that being preferred: see 234. Adjective & Pronoun Uses of “that”, #1). It is more typical outside sequence descriptions, often after a time period expression, e.g. many years after, or an event verb:

(b) Compared with what came after, that summer was a happy one.

At once, like beforehand, suggests immediacy. Later suggests a time interval, eventually an extended preceding event/ situation. Eventually, lastly and finally can all show a final event, but eventually can also show earlier ones (see 210. Process Descriptions, #2).
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Frequency Adverbs

The fundamental idea here is repetition. One subgroup, illustrated by daily, indicates the length of time between repetitions; another, illustrated by twice, indicates number of repetitions.

Frequency adverbs can occupy all three sentence positions, but perhaps go less commonly at the start, where the focus is more on them than other information:

(c) Occasionally, people question the need for insurance.
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1. Adverbs like Daily

annually, biennially, hourly, intermittently, regularly, weekly, yearly

Two of these do not indicate an exact time interval: intermittently says only that it varies in length, regularly that it does not.
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2. Adverbs like Twice

again, a little, little, always, commonly, consecutively, constantly, continually, ever, (in)frequently, generally, invariably, mostly, never, normally, occasionally, often, once, rarely, repeatedly, seldom, sometimes, successively, twice, typically, unfailingly, usually

Most of these, it is clear, are vague about the number of occurrences – only once, twice and again are not. This makes them useful for indicating exceptions and avoiding sweeping statements (see 95. Avoiding Untruths 1 and the end of 215. Naming Exceptions).

Nonetheless, most can be grouped in terms of the number of occurrences. Between 0% (never) and 100% (always, ever, invariably, unfailingly), approximate percentage groups are 25% (a little, little, occasionally, rarely, seldom), 50% (sometimes), 70% (commonly, frequently, often) and 90% (generally, normally, typically, usually). Less easily quantified are constantly, continually and repeatedly.

Ever expresses frequency only with brief-action verbs – usually in continuous tenses (…is ever complaining) or participle form (see 272. Uses of “Ever”).

Unfailingly often indicates desirable regularity – it has a “positive connotation” (see 16. Ways of Distinguishing Similar Words, #2). By contrast, repeatedly often indicates undesirability.

Little, rarely and seldom suggest an unhelpfully small frequency while a little and occasionally suggest small but useful frequency (see 310. Aspects of Negation).

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Duration Adverbs

For a full survey of duration language, see 258. Saying How Long Something Lasts. Adverbs in this category include:

always, briefly, constantly, continuously, eternally, ever, fleetingly, forever, instantaneously, long, perpetually, permanently, quickly, rapidly, since, slowly, still, temporarily, not yet

Always, constantly and perpetually express duration of states or extended actions, e.g. …always worked in Madrid (with brief actions they express frequency). Ever mainly describes adjective states (e.g. ever thankful).

Long (= “for a long time”) and since (= “between then and now”) usually accompany a “present perfect” or “past perfect” verb (i.e. with HAVE). In positive statements, long directly follows HAVE (…had long known that…), and since often does too but can also go last, especially in the combination ever since. In questions and negative statements, both long and since usually go last (…have not returned since/long).

Ever since is vague about future continuation, and is hence useful, like since then, for avoiding the “finishing now” implication of until now (see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #1). Since is not to be confused with the similarly-spelt preposition and conjunction (see 61. “Since” versus “Because”).

Still similarly expresses duration from a past point, but definitely into the future (= “not finished now”). Not still says, like no longer, that something began and ended in the past. Not yet says something has not started, but will in the future. The implied duration is of non-occurrence from the past to the future:

(e) Humans have not yet visited Mars.

A slightly weaker belief about future occurrence is shown by BE or HAVE + yet to… (…are yet to visit…), while weaker still is may yet….

Finally, note the difference between continuously (duration without interruption) and continually (repetitive frequency).

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TIME ADVERBS WITH INTERESTING EXTRA MEANING

1. Point in Time

already, at last, belatedly, consequently, duly, early, finally, late, originally, prematurely

Originally is the only one of these that cannot refer equally to past, present or future. It indicates a starting situation in the past, suggesting a later change.

Early, prematurely, late and belatedly indicate occurrence of a past, present or future event at a different time from one required or agreed, early and prematurely indicating occurrence before, the other two after. Late and prematurely usually have a negative connotation, while early and belatedly are more neutral and hence politer.

Already indicates occurrence before an expected time, scheduled or not. Duly means “at the expected time”. It differs from on time in highlighting expectation rather than punctuality: the train duly arrived is more about the fact of its arrival than the time.

Consequently shows a later time like next but also a causal link. At last suggests not just a long wait like eventually but also happiness at its end (see 20. Problem Connectors, #7). Finally can suggest this too, but mostly before isolated events.

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2. Frequency

consecutively, successively

Successively is a kind of opposite of simultaneously, suggesting multiple occurrences in a sequence, each one later than the the one before. A phrasal synonym is one after the other.

Consecutively also indicates sequential occurrences but links them to a particular time framework, such as months of the year, and indicates an absence of gaps:

(d) The six books consecutively cover the years of World War 2.

This means each book is about one war year and the book sequence matches the year one.

226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2

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Some words are usable in multiple (and often confusing) grammatical ways

THE PROBLEM OF COMPLICATED GRAMMAR

The first Guinlist post with a title like the above (201. Words with Complicated Grammar 1) highlights an important contrast between two types of grammatical information: not just that given by “grammars”, but also the kind found in dictionaries. Grammars focus on wide-ranging features like verb tense usage; dictionaries on word-specific requirements like the preposition needed between divided and categories. Traditionally, these respective kinds of grammatical description tended to be called “grammar” and “usage”; my preferred terms are “broad grammar” and “narrow grammar” (see the rationale for my grammar practice book).

Like that first post, this one is about a particular type of learning problem in narrow grammar. This is not the problem of similar words following different rules (the topic of posts like 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1 and 250. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar, but rather the problem that results from a word’s grammar just being extensive or complex. Once again, I offer in-depth analysis of a small number of multi-faceted words. This is a different kind of analysis from that in various Guinlist posts entitled Tricky Word Contrasts, where the emphasis is on meaning rather than grammar.

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PROBLEM WORDS

1. Worth

This is actually two different words: a noun and a preposition. The noun is usually uncountable:

(a) Sport has great worth.

Worth here occupies the typical noun position of “object” (of the verb has), and is recognisable as uncountable because it is singular without the or similar (see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”). However, it could also be used countably (after a), indicating a category instead of a quantity (see 23. Noun Countability Clues 3: Subtypes).

The preposition worth looks very like an adjective, since it similarly needs a partner noun. Yet it is not an adjective because a or the (or similar) must come after it, like with prepositions in general, and not before, as adjectives require (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #1). Thus, worth a try is correct, not *a worth try – obviously different from combinations with an adjective, such as a useful try (not *useful a try). Worth can also follow well, just as various other prepositions can (see 256. Unusual Meanings of Familiar Words, #2).

However, prepositional worth is still easy to mistake for an adjective. Part of the problem is that its meaning closely resembles that of various adjectives, such as beneficial, useful and valuable. A common error resulting from this is to put verbs after worth into the to form that these adjectives necessitate (see 83. Adjectives before a “to” Verb), instead of the -ing form necessitated by worth‘s preposition status (see 242. Words with Unexpected Grammar 3, #a). Consider this:

(b) Sport is useful to do.

Using worth here instead of useful would necessitate changing to do into doing:

(c) Sport is worth doing.

It is hardly surprising that such a small grammatical difference between worth and its synonyms leads many learners of English into incorrectly using to after worth.

However, the rules for synonyms are not the only source of problems with worth. Another of its grammatical possibilities is in sentences like (c) with an “empty” it instead of a noun after it e.g.:

(d) Visiting the Taj Mahal is worth it.

It here refers to no particular noun but is necessitated by worth’s prepositional status (see 190. Special Uses of “it”, #5).

A consequence of this possibility is that worth it can, like many adjectives, follow a starting it is… so as to describe a later verb:

(e) It is worth it to visit the Taj Mahal.

The second verb in such sentences (to visit above) usually needs to, not -ing. The -ing requirement disappears because worth’s need for a partner noun-like expression has already been met by it. This possibility of using worth with to instead of -ing is probably another common cause of error (see 165. Confusions of Similar Structures 2, #2).

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2. Certain

Different meanings of this adjective involve different grammar rules. With the meaning of “unspecified”, certain must go before its noun, not after with BE or similar in between (see 184. Adjectives with Limited Mobility, “Focus Adjectives”). The noun sometimes needs a, sometimes no article, but rarely the:

(f) A certain question puzzled everyone.

By contrast, certain meaning “convinced” must follow its noun + link verb. Because “convinced” is a mind state, the noun will normally represent a living, probably human, being. Certain with this meaning allows a following that or about. After about, a noun might follow, or a statement with an -ing verb, or a question word + indirect question (see 219. Wording next to Indirect Questions, #3).

A third meaning of certain is “cannot be doubted”. It can describe a fact or belief (see 224. Asserting the Truth of what you Say, #2). In statements about the future, it equates to “inevitable”; in present / past fact-giving, it equates to “proven”. Either of the main adjective positions is possible.

The exact time reference of certain with this meaning may sometimes be unclear, especially at the end of a BE sentence:

(g) A shift in attitudes is certain.

Without a context, this could refer to the past, present or future. The time can be clarified with a to verb after certain: a simple one for the future (e.g. to occur: see 316. Verb Futures without “will” or “shall”, #3), one with have for the past (to have occurred) and one with be -ing for the present (to be occurring). A future-referring verb will also imply that a belief is being expressed, since factual future statements are rare (see 96. Lists and Predictions). To clearly convey description with past / present verbs, replacing certain with proven may be necessary.

The possibility of not having a to verb after …is certain only exists in sentences starting with an “action” noun like shift in (g). Other starting nouns seem always to necessitate a to verb:

(h) Life on other planets is certain to be discovered.

Perhaps a more common way of using certain meaning “cannot be doubted” is after It is…:

(i) It is certain that life exists on other planets.

Such sentences require a that statement after certain. The tense of its verb automatically indicates the time of the information described by certain. Care is needed not to confuse the uses in (h) and (i) (see 231. Confusions of Similar Structures 3, #6).

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3. Aim

This word can be a noun or verb. Its meaning is not normally problematic, though there may be difficulty separating the verb from INTEND (see 114. Tricky Word Contrasts 3, #5) and the noun from motive (see 276. Tricky Word Contrasts 11, #2). The challenge is using aim with wording specifying a particular aim.

The noun form is usually countable. It allows two main types of aim specification. One is the focus of a sentence, typically after BE:

(j) The aim of the project was to measure air pollution.

The aim specification here is underlined. For more about such sentences, see 119. BE before a “to” Verb, #1. An alternative to a to verb is an “action” noun – measurement of… above (see 131. Uses of Action Nouns, #5). In suitable contexts, the aim specification can change places with the aim…, but needs its to verb changed to an -ing one or action noun because English generally dislikes starting sentences with a to verb (see 103. Commenting with “it” on a Later Verb).

Aim specification can also be the sentence focus with the verb HAVE. The subject will be the aim holder (e.g. The project has…), the object …the aim of -ing. One cannot replace of -ing with a to verb (*the aim to measure); doing so is a common error.

The other main type of aim specification with the noun aim is not the focus of its sentence. It generally goes before of without HAVE:

(k) Progress was made towards the aim of measuring air pollution.

Also notable is the noun aim used within the phrasal preposition with the aim of…. (see 221. Multi-Word Prepositions).

The verb AIM usually makes aim specification the focus of its sentence. The active allows as subject either the aim holder or something done by them, and is usually followed by a target action, expressed by either to + verb or at + action noun:

(l) The team/The project AIMED to measure (or at measurement of) air pollution.

After at, an -ing verb is also occasionally found. However, this can sometimes sound incorrect – I am not sure why – so should be treated with caution.

The passive form can also have the aim holder’s work as subject, but it cannot have the aim holder, and it must be followed by at. After at, there is often a verb or action noun, e.g.:

(m) The project WAS AIMED at persuading (or persuasion of) doubters.

Alternatively, at after the passive of AIM can introduce someone affected by the aim, e.g. …was aimed at doubters in (m).

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4. For Example

For the meaning of this expression (and for instance), see 1. Simple-Example-Giving. Its grammatical difficulty arises from its usability in two different ways. In one, it resembles a preposition, so that the example(s) need noun form. It may go before or after them, without punctuation in between. However, two commas or a comma and a full stop must surround both:

For example cannot be used with all noun-form examples: those that narrow the meaning of the preceding general idea need such as instead, without commas (see 53. “As”, “Like” and “Such As”).

The other use of for example is in a separate sentence after one needing to be exemplified. This makes it a “connector” (see 259. Multi-Word Connectors), with the result that it usually needs punctuation immediately before and after it. Depending on its position, this may be a full stop with a later comma, two commas, or a comma before a full stop:

(o) Air pollution can cause numerous problems. For example, it may promote global warming.

(p) Pollution can cause numerous problems. Air pollution, for example, may promote global warming.

In (o), global warming illustrates problems in the sentence before. The rest of its sentence is just a paraphrase. As a result, the two sentences can become one, with it may lead to dropped and for example placed after rather than before a comma. In (p), however, two general expressions are being exemplified (pollution and problems), so that the two sentences must stay separate. For more on exemplification of this kind, see 33. Complex Example-Giving.

Note that in formal writing e.g., commonly thought of as a synonym of for example, cannot replace the connector usage – it is only a preposition. This means it needs no directly-following comma (despite what grammar-check software sometimes advises). It cannot usually follow the example(s) (see 130. Formal Abbreviations).

Two other expressions with similar grammar to for example are that is to say and in other words (see 286. Repeating in Different Words, #4 and #6).