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Process descriptions have recognisable linguistic features, though few are compulsory
DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE
A process is a fixed, often-repeated sequence of events leading to a specific end. The events may have a natural cause, like those in human maturation, or be set in motion by people, as in the process of refrigeration. They exclude fixed sequences performed consciously by human beings, which are more typically called procedures, protocols, recipes or algorithms, and they also exclude historical sequences, which usually happen only once (see 282. Features of History Writing).
Process descriptions are especially common in the sciences – medicine, geology, psychology and chemistry, for example, have an obvious need for them – as well as in technologies like manufacturing and computing. However, they can occur in some surprising other places too, such as education (learning processes) and history (political processes).
The nature of processes usually makes their description multi-sentence. There tends in consequence to be a wide variety of things to say, each associated with a choice of linguistic expression. Some of these, however, are more likely to occur than others. Here, my aim is to identify the most typical and useful linguistic features of process descriptions. The approach is similar to that with various other multi-sentence writing types in this blog (data analysis, listing, argumentation, giving advantages & disadvantages).
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A MODEL PROCESS DESCRIPTION
To illustrate the characteristics of process descriptions, it is helpful to have a model. The following paragraph describes a well-known physical process. The numbers are to assist sentence referencing in the discussion below.
The Water Cycle
(1) Water is continuously circulating between the ocean and the land. (2) It first leaves the ocean through evaporation into the air, where it rises and cools, eventually condensing to form clouds. (3) The clouds are transported by wind across the sky, and some end up above dry land. (4) If these clouds undergo sufficient further cooling, their condensed water will fall onto the land as raindrops. (5) Increasing numbers of raindrops enable them to combine and form streams of water flowing downwards under the influence of gravity. (6) In time, the streams are likely to meet and merge with others like them until they become rivers. (7) Rivers continue to flow downwards across the land, to eventually reach a lake or the sea. (8) Once rainwater has returned to the sea, the process is ready to start again.
This paragraph illustrates the normal order in which processes are described: mostly mirroring the chronological order in which they actually happen (see 222. Information Orders in Texts, #1). In addition, it has a typical introductory sentence, summarising everything so that the reader knows where the process is leading (in this case back to its start). Note how the order of the ocean and the land in this sentence reflects the order of their mentions in the detailed description, establishing an expectation of reading about them in this order.
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LINGUISTIC FEATURES
Process descriptions like the above tend to have the following special characteristics.
1. Active Verbs in the Present Simple Tense
Linking actions together in a sequence is a typical use of the present simple tense, even in the absence of a general time reference, which this tense is typically associated with. Only three verbs above are in other tenses, and even those would be equally acceptable in the present simple.
In sentence 1 (S1), the present continuous is…circulating is preferred to emphasise the continuousness of the action. In S4, the future will fall can replace the present simple falls because the other half of the sentence has if + present simple (undergo) (see 118. Problems with Conditional “if”). Choosing will fall emphasises the speaker’s own belief in the rule being stated. In S8, the present perfect has returned is not essential to show an earlier occurrence, since after once the present simple returns can do the same (see 225. Simultaneous Occurrence). The present perfect emphasises the earlier timing.
Passive verbs are also rare above, the only example being are transported (S3). A major reason for this rarity may be that the typical verbs in process descriptions tend to be of the kind that either cannot be passive or do not have to be passive. TRANSPORT is unusual in being of neither kind. The first category is illustrated above by rises (S2), end up (S3), will fall (S4), flowing (S5), become (S6) and to flow (S7); the second by is circulating (S1), cools + condensing (S2), combine (S5), merge (S6), continue (S7) and has returned + start (S8).
Each of the verbs in the second list would be equally correct if directly replaced by its passive form. It seems, though, that there has to a special reason for the passive to be preferred.
Note in addition undergo cooling (S4), where the meaning of the passive is expressed by an active verb with non-active meaning. For more on UNDERGO, see 173. “Do Research” or “Make Research?”, #6.
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2. Connectors
Connectors in process descriptions, like those in history writing, predominantly indicate either a time or a cause-effect link with the event before them. Later times are most typically indicated, but earlier or simultaneous ones are quite frequent too. Common time connectors include after this, before this, next, then and meanwhile. For fuller lists, see 227. Time Adverbs and 259. Multi-Word Connectors. Typical cause-effect connectors include consequently, hence and as a result (see 32. Expressing Consequences).
Some process connectors – for example next, then and finally – are used similarly in multi-sentence lists (see 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists). However, others are subtly different there. First usually becomes firstly in lists. In addition means “at the same time” in process descriptions, but “next” in lists. Afterwards, eventually, subsequently and thence have no listing use at all.
The above paragraph has three connectors, all showing a time relation: first (S2), in time (S6) and eventually (S2 and S7). The first two are associated in the normal connector way with two separate sentences (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors). Both uses of eventually, however, merely clarify a meaning link between two same-sentence statements.
Linking with a connector inside these sentences is made possible through the connector verb having to or -ing (see below). The probable purpose is to avoid creating too many short sentences whilst still utilising the meaning of eventually (= after some time). Eventually needs to be distinguished from both at last, a celebratory word rarely found in process descriptions (see 20. Problem Connectors, #7), and finally, which lacks the time-delay suggestion. Of course eventually can also be used in the normal connector way, clarifying a link between two separate sentences.
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3. Conjunctions
There are seven conjunctions altogether in the paragraph: where (S2), and (S3), if (S4), and (S5), and, until (S6) and once (S8). Like the connectors, they tend to show time relations between the various events. They are probably preferred in order to minimise the number of short sentences.
Where in S2 gives information about the location of its event as well as the timing – it combines and and there in one word. If in S4 introduces a cause-effect relation – preferred to because in order to show that the relevant cause (sufficient further cooling) happens unpredictably (see the end of 61. “Since” versus Because”). Until in S6 is the conjunction equivalent of eventually, suggesting a need for time to pass before the event happens. This equivalence is useful to know about because the meaning in question is common in process descriptions, so that repetitiveness is again a danger.
The frequency of and in the list is probably representative of its frequency in process descriptions as a whole. Often this frequency necessitates conscious effort to find alternatives.
Time-sequence conjunctions not illustrated above include as, when and while (see 225. Simultaneous Occurrence) and after, as soon as and before (see 171. Aspects of the Past Perfect Tense). Additional consequence conjunctions include so, so that and since.
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4. Verbs with “to” or “-ing”
These two verb forms (participle and infinitive) are a useful alternative to and for reducing the number of short sentences. Examples above are condensing (S2) and to…reach (S7). There is a choice between a participle and an infinitive in both places, but infinitives are not possible everywhere: they need, for example, to have the same subject as the main verb in their sentence (see 246. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 2, #5).
Using -ing for and is common in some other writing types too, for example instructions (see 128. Imperative Verbs in Formal Writing). For more about it, see 101. Add-on Participles. Words above with -ing that are not of this linking kind include cooling (a noun-like gerund in S4), increasing (a pre-noun use in S5) and flowing (expressing a simultaneous rather than subsequent action in S5).
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5. Action Nouns
This name is mine for nouns resembling particular verbs in spelling and action meaning, e.g. movement (MOVE), ignition (IGNITE), change (CHANGE) and closure (CLOSE) (see 14. Action Outcomes). There are only two examples in the above paragraph (evaporation [S2] and [influence [S5]), but such nouns are common in process descriptions.
One use is to reduce the monotony of expressing actions always with verbs. A major means of achieving this is by combining them with a means-showing preposition like by or through (see 72. Causal Prepositions and 73. Prepositions for Saying How). An example above is in S2: It first leaves the ocean through evaporation…, a paraphrase of It first evaporates … and leaves the ocean.
Another common use of action nouns in process descriptions is to repeat the meaning of an earlier verb in order to link it more clearly with the next event in the process (see 131. Uses of Action Nouns, #2). For example, the meaning of to…reach…the sea in S7 could be repeated at the start of S8:
(a) This return to the sea enables the process to recommence.
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6. Cause Verbs
ENABLE in S5 allows two causally-linked events (increasing…combine and form) to be mentioned concisely as its subject and object. It may have been chosen for variety as well as conciseness: it is a synonym of if, used already in the sentence just before. A clue to the value of verbs like ENABLE in process descriptions is perhaps the number of synonyms of it in English (see 32. Expressing Consequences).
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7. “The”
Sentences in process descriptions commonly start with the + repeated noun. Repetition is not the reason in S1 (the sea, the ocean), but it is in the clouds (S3), the streams (s6) and the water (S8). Rivers in S7 could easily have it too. The purpose of repeating nouns is usually the same: to signal a link with something mentioned previously (see 24. Good and Bad Repetition). The reason why repeated nouns are near the start of their sentences is that English speakers tend to associate that position with familiar ideas (see 156. Mentioning What the Reader Knows Already, #10).
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