219. Wording next to Indirect Questions

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Much choice is possible concerning the words needed to support an indirect question in a sentence

THE VARIABILITY OF WORDING NEXT TO INDIRECT QUESTIONS

Like most indirect speech, indirect questions usually occupy only part of a sentence, the other part giving such information about them as their originator and purpose. In the following example, the part outside the question is of a kind that most people would probably consider typical:

(a) Economists ask what determines consumer choice.

Here, the indirect question (underlined) is the object of a main verb (ask). The subject of this verb (economists) is the originator of the question, while its tense shows that the asking probably occurs regularly. We also understand that the question is being “reported”, since its first asking comes from someone other than the writer.

Because (a) is such a typical indirect question sentence, its form tends to receive prominent attention in grammatical descriptions of indirect speech. However, indirect question sentences have numerous other possible forms, many not given much attention at all. The question can be not just the object of the sentence but also a subject, complement or partner of a preposition. The idea of “asking” can be expressed with not just a verb but also a noun or adjective. It can even be replaced by alternatives like “explaining” or “knowing”, for example by means of the verb explain or know in (a) instead of ask.

The main Guinlist post on indirect questions touches on all of these points (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing), but it does not provide an in-depth examination of wording next to indirect questions, and it is this that I wish to conduct here. The only area that I will not consider is wording between parenthetical commas, or even absent altogether. For details of these, see 183. Statements between Commas and 207. Exotic Grammar Structures 4, #4.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIRECT QUESTIONS

In order to examine the wording that can go alongside indirect questions, it is necessary to be sure what an indirect question is. This matter is considered in detail in 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing, but essential characteristics are as follows:

1. A question word (or noun equivalent) at the start, without that in front.

2. Standard word order: no part of the verb before the subject.

3. Occurrence (normally) in a noun position inside a longer sentence.

4. Adjacency in sentences to wording indicating asking, explaining or knowing / not knowing.

5. Absence (normally) of a question mark at the end.

The relevance of point 4 here is that it helps to distinguish indirect questions from similar-looking expressions that appear to meet all of the other requirements, like the following:

(b) What Caesar did was illegal/astonishing.

I would not consider what Caesar did here to be an indirect question because the accompanying words do not indicate asking, explaining or knowing / not knowing. An indirect question would be shown by will be investigated (= asking) or is as follows (= explaining) or is debatable (= not knowing).

Much of the variability of the wording alongside indirect questions is in the way that asking etc. is expressed. The various possibilities are as follows.

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WAYS OF INDICATING ASKING ETC.

1. Verbs

Verbs that mean a type of asking, explaining or knowing are the most obvious and likely means of signalling an indirect question. If they can do so with an academic reference, they fall into the category of “citation” verbs (see 76. Tenses of Citation Verbs). Some of the commonest are listed in this blog in 279. Grammatical Differences between Citation Verbs.

Most verbs occur in the active voice with the question as their object, and their subject indicating either the speaker or someone who is being cited, e.g.:

(c) I will now consider when this started.

(d) Jones (2018, p. 6) examines the origins of satellite TV.

(e) Could you tell me where the library is?

The verb consider in (c) could be either asking or explaining. Its slightly informal subject I could be replaced by the name of the communication medium, e.g. this essay or the current chapter (see 46. How to Avoid “I”, “We” and “You”). Alternatively, there could be a starting It is (now) + adjective (e.g. desirable, helpful, important, interesting, necessary, opportune, useful, valuable) or + noun (e.g. time), followed by the infinitive verb to consider (see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “it”). The overall purpose of the question in (c) is topic-introducing.

Sentence (d), with another person’s name as subject, is a report of the kind often found in literature reviews (see 76. Tenses of Citation Verbs). The indirect question starts with a noun (origins), but could equally well have the question word how or where… (see 185. Noun Synonyms of Question Words). The verb examines is an asking one.

Sentence (e) is a polite request. Unusually, it has the addressee you as the subject of an active explaining verb tell. This is possible because the indirect question is introduced with a direct one (necessitating the question mark at the end). It could also be introduced with an ordinary statement, with the speaker its subject: I would like to know….

Although indirect questions typically follow their partner verb in the object position, they can, like most objects, become a subject at the start. Sentence (c), for example, could become:

(f) The moment when this started will now be considered.

The indirect question now starts with a noun (moment) instead of a question word – a seemingly normal requirement at the start of a sentence (see 285. Complexities of Question Words, #2). The verb, moreover, is in the passive voice.

Verbs with an indirect question subject quite often need to be passive, but not always: the active form of a different  verb can sometimes be found instead (see 27. How to Avoid Passive Verbs). In (f), for example, will be considered could be replaced by needs consideration. This does not mean, however, that an alternative to a passive verb should always be sought: sometimes a passive will be better (see 69. How Computers Get Grammar Wrong 2).

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2. Nouns

Question-signalling nouns can avoid undesirable aspects of verb use, such as I subjects (as in [c] above) and passive forms. Many are derived from a verb by means of an ending like -sion, -ation, -ment and -al (see 287. Speech and Thought Nouns).

Common verb-derived examples are analysis, clarification, consideration, definition, description, enquiry (into), illustration, identification, indication, investigation (of/into), judgement (about), outline, study, summary and survey. Question-signalling nouns not derived from verbs include issue, matter, moot point, question and uncertainty (about).

Indirect questions signalled by a noun can be incidental to other information in their sentence or its main point. In the first case, they and their signalling noun (the two usually linked by of, e.g. identification of why…) just have a normal noun role – subject, object, etc. – in a statement giving the other information. The reason for of is that the indirect question is often what I have elsewhere called “object-like”: destined to become an object if the signalling noun were to be paraphrased with its related verb. Of is the typical preposition before such nouns (see 31. Prepositions after Action Nouns 1).

Nouns not derived from a verb often need of as well to link with an indirect question, but a different kind, similar in meaning to “which is” (see 160. Uses of “of”, #4). It usually necessitates the before the noun (e.g. the issue / question of why…).

When an indirect question is the main point of a statement, it will occupy either the start, as in (f), or the end. With it starting, the signalling noun follows in a statement like …needs consideration, …is an important question or …defies explanation.

Nouns with no related verb (matter, question, issue etc.) commonly follow a characterising adjective, common examples being central, complicated, controversial, crucial, fascinating, fundamental, important, interesting, key, major, obvious, necessary, puzzling, tricky and vital. The adjective moot can only accompany a … point. A substitute for all of a(n) + adjective + question (etc.) is of interest or of importance (see 198. Indicating Importance, #2).

If a question ends rather than starts a sentence in which it is the main point, a preceding signalling noun is usable in various ways. Verb-derived nouns can combine with a passive “dummy” verb plus preposition, e.g. Consideration will be given to… in (c). The choice of verb depends on the noun: a judgement…about needs BE MADE, an enquiry…into BE UNDERTAKEN or BE CARRIED OUT (see 173. “Do Research” or “Make Research”?). The active of an alternative verb is sometimes possible too, e.g. centre on after consideration.

On the other hand, nouns like matter can accompany BE:

(g) A key question is (or It is a key question) why…

For more on the use after It is…, see 318. “It is” + Noun & Another Verb, #1.

Alternatively, both types of signalling noun can follow there + BE. For example, (c) could start either There will be consideration of… or There is a/the matter of… (see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences, #2).

Sometimes, either type of pre-question signalling noun is linked to previous information by means of a verb like LEAD TO or PROMPT:

(h) This observation LEADS TO consideration (or the matter) of why…

Before matter etc. RAISE is also possible; before consideration etc. NECESSITATE is.

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3. Adjectives

Adjectives can accompany an indirect question not just as shown above before an infinitive verb or a noun, but also alone. The possibilities are considered in detail in 300. Adjective Indicators of Indirect Speech.

With indirect questions that are not reported, a signalling adjective is likely to go in front after it is:

(i) It is interesting where insects go in winter.

Other adjectives usable like this include clear (= obvious), controversial, disputed, doubtful (+ whether), fascinating, important, mystifying, obvious, puzzling, tricky, uncertain (= unproven), unproven and unknown. All these perhaps imply the presence of an asking noun like the question of just before the indirect question (see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #8). The question itself must begin with a question word, not a noun equivalent.

When a question is reported as somebody else’s, a preceding adjective is likely to link with it via a preposition:

(j) Einstein was curious ABOUT why weight changes in elevators.

A few non-reported indirect questions can be expressed similarly:

(k) The durability of Greek drama is indicative OF how perceptive it is.

Other adjectives like curious and indicative include aware (of), baffled (about / as to), (un)certain (about / as to), (un)clear (about / as to), convinced (of / about), doubtful (about / as to), ignorant (about / as to), interested (in), knowledgeable (about), suggestive (of) and (un)sure (about / of / as to). For more about certain, see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #2. For more about doubtful, see 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1, #7.

218. Tricky Word Contrasts 8

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Some pairs of words are easily confused because of close similarities in spelling and/or meaning

THE PROBLEM OF TRICKY WORD CONTRASTS

Most users of English have encountered vocabulary items that are easily confused because they resemble each other in spelling and/or meaning. A well-known example – often explained in English language coursebooks – is AVOID SOMETHING (= escape from its path) versus PREVENT SOMETHING (= cause it not to happen). The problem is that such pairs are very numerous in English, and many are rarely highlighted so that they are likely to remain completely unrecognised, or at least not fully differentiated.

It is these rarely-considered potential confusions, especially ones likely to occur in professional writing, that are the focus of the present post, just as they are of various others with a similar title (see the “Posts on Specific Words” page for a complete list). Other Guinlist posts about vocabulary confusions include 16. Ways of Distinguishing Similar Words,  44. Troublesome Prepositional Verbs,  94. Essay Instruction Words,  196. Saying what is inside Things and 198. Indicating Importance.

For some grammar contrasts, see 100. What is a Grammar Error?,  133 Confusions of Similar Structures 1 and 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts. For some pronunciation ones 144. Words that are Often Heard Wrongly.

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LIST OF CONTRASTS

1. “Percent” versus “Percentage”

These both act grammatically like nouns. The difference between them is not so much in their meanings as in the words they can accompany. Percent nearly always follows a number, e.g. 75 percent, while percentage is usually preferred otherwise. Typical uses of percentage are:

(a) Malaria affects a high percentage of the world’s population.

(b) The percentage of water in the product is easily calculated.

(c) The equation gives the percentage change over six months.

(d) Compared to the previous year, sales were 3 percentage points lower.

Sentence (a) here shows how even number-replacing adjectives like high, small or numerous need percentage rather than percent. Note, though, that a few and many – which both typically describe only plural nouns – need percent (see 201. Words with Complicated Grammar, #2).

Sentence (c) illustrates the very common adjective-like use of percentage before another noun (see 38. Nouns Used like Adjectives). The other noun is very often one of the numerous possibilities for representing the idea of “increase” or “decrease”, such as change, decrease, drop, fall, improvement, increase and rise (for a fuller list, see 115. Surveying Numerical Data, #2).

Sentence (d) shows the main exception to the rule that numbers precede percent rather than percentage: the latter is always the right choice between a number and the word points. Note that an increase of 3 percentage points is usually a different quantity from an increase of 3 percent.

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2. “Question” versus “Query”

These words are both usable as either a noun or verb. The countable noun a question literally refers to words with the familiar grammatical form of a direct or indirect question. However, it can also indicate any words (with or without question form) aimed at gaining specific information or testing another person’s knowledge. There are also meanings not concerned with gaining information, such as “disputed point” or “problem”.

The verb QUESTION normally needs an object, either someone or something. To question someone is to ask them for information, usually with multiple questions. For example, a police officer might question a suspect, and an interviewer might question an applicant. On the other hand, to question something is usually to speak about it – not necessarily with a question – in a way that indicates doubt, disagreement or unhappiness. A typical object might be a noun like a decision or an explanation, or an indirect question beginning why… or what… (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing).

The noun a query also refers to a verbal attempt to gain information, but is more restricted.  The information that it seeks is usually a clarification of something previously heard or seen. As a result, it could not normally mean a test question aimed at evaluating a candidate’s knowledge.

The verb QUERY again usually needs an object, but this is more likely to be something than someone, either a noun or indirect question. The suggestion is not so much of disagreement as of uncertainty, the purpose often being to clarify or check the queried point. One might, for example, query a date, a price or when an event ends.

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3. “Stairs” versus “Steps”

Although a step can refer to a small elevated area for people to stand on in order to reach a higher level, just as a stair does, there is an important difference. If there is only one by itself, or just a few, a step/steps is usually the right choice. There is no clear definition of “a few”, but my subjective feeling is that it could be up to four. If there are more, steps will still sometimes be appropriate, but stairs will sometimes be instead.

Stairs tend to be integrated inside a building so that they are immovable with a suggestion of permanence and architectural design. Thus, anything movable, such as a stepladder, will consist of steps, and so will anything external, such as a fire escape. In places where there is no building at all, such as a hill or cliff, again steps is the common preference. In the picture above, what we see is steps.

Note that upstairs does not necessarily imply stairs at all. As a noun (an upstairs), it just means an upper storey of a building. As an adjective or adverb (is/went upstairs), it means “on/to the level above” (see 26. One Word or Two? and 154. Lone Prepositions after BE, under “UP”).

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4. “Shade” versus “Shadow”

It is a common error to use shadow when shade is meant. Both refer, of course, to an open area that is receiving fewer light rays than its surroundings because something is blocking them. The light blockage means that the affected area is darker than the surroundings, forming a discernible shape.

Grammatically, shade in the sense being considered here is uncountable whereas a shadow is countable. The meaning difference suggests different consequences of the light blockage. Shade indicates protection from possible harm caused by the light, so that the blockage is something desirable. The word hence carries a “positive connotation” (see 16. Ways of Distinguishing Similar Words, #2), rather like shelter. The kind of light that usually impels people to seek shade is sunlight, because of its tendency to cause sunburn or heatstroke.

Shadow, on the other hand, highlights the visibility and/or shape of the darkened area, sometimes with a negative connotation. We might talk, for example, of short shadows cast by the sun at certain times of the year. Moreover, shadows are much less likely than shade to be created by the sun. They are often associated with night-time, where the light source is artificial and they blend in with surrounding darkness. A common expression in this context is in the shadows (= almost hidden by shadows). The expression cast a shadow may just indicate the creation of a light blockage, but often it metaphorically suggests spoilage or threatening. The adjective shadowy means “semi-visible” and hence often “sinister”.

The countable noun shades can mean “sunglasses” or (poetically) “spirits of the dead”. The former is a good example of a “substance location” (see 43. Noun Countability Clues 4).

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5. “Example” versus “Instance”

These two words help to make the virtually synonymous example-giving phrases for example and for instance (considered from a grammatical point of view in 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2 , #4). Used alone in the singular form, they both refer to a member of a wider general class (see 1. Simple Example-Giving), but they are not exactly the same.

One major difference is that examples can be used for clarification or justification, whereas instances usually are not. For example, if we call speeding an example of bad driving we are likely to be explaining what bad driving is, whereas if we call it an instance we assume that the addressee knows what bad driving is and is more interested in whether or when it occurred. However, example is sometimes much more like instance in meaning (see “Naming a Category” in 162. Writing about Classifications). Here is an example of instance in use:

(e) Many instances of bad driving are observable on major highways.

A further feature of instances is that they need not differ from other instances of the same general idea except in their occurrence – they can easily all look the same. In (e), all of the instances of bad driving might be speeding. This feature means an instance sometimes accompanies of + uncountable noun in contexts where the uncountable noun would by itself be grammatically incorrect. Examples are an instance of poverty and an instance of success (see 180. Nouns that Count the Uncountable).

Examples, on the other hand, are more likely to differ from each other in nature. In (e), this word might suggest various types of bad driving as well as different occurrences.

The emphasis of instance(s) on occurrence means that it can fairly easily be replaced by the word occurrence(s). This is certainly true in (e). Also notable is the common phrase in this instance, which is similar in meaning to in this case.

217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1

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Sometimes two grammar structures are hard to distinguish because they are very similar in form and/or meaning

TRICKY CONTRASTS IN ENGLISH

As in most languages, it is quite common in English to find two items – sometimes of vocabulary, sometimes of grammar – whose meanings are not easy to differentiate. A few pairs of this kind are explained in most English coursebooks, and are as a result well-known. However, many are not.

In this blog, the meanings of similar vocabulary pairs are analysed in numerous posts entitled “Tricky Word Contrasts” (for a list, see the page of Posts on Specific Words). The present post is the first to compare the meanings of similar grammatical structures. Others are 246. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 2,  271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3,  293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4 and 309. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 5. Grammar structures whose similarities often give rise to grammar errors are given separate attention in posts entitled Confusions of Similar Structures.

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LIST OF GRAMMAR CONTRASTS

1. “Way of doing” versus “Way to do”

The difference between these may be illustrated as follows:

(a) Footballers’ way of training is by practising individual skills.

(b) A good way to learn vocabulary is by reading.

Sentence (a) simply indicates something about other people’s behaviour without suggesting it should be emulated. The focus is on something that exists already. Sentence (b), on the other hand, is a recommendation. It mentions an activity (reading) that the speaker hopes the addressee will take up in the future (see 187. Advising and Recommending). For more on way, see 73. Prepositions for Saying How and 185. Noun Synonyms of Question Words.

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2. “that” (Conjunction) versus “the fact that”

These two are similar in that they both enable a statement with a subject and verb to be placed in a sentence position normally associated with nouns. They differ in the particular noun positions that they mostly occupy. The differences may be summarised as follows:

VERB SUBJECT:  the fact that (that in very formal contexts)
VERB OBJECT: that (very occasionally the fact that)
VERB COMPLEMENT: that (occasionally the fact that)
AFTER A PREPOSITION: the fact that (very occasionally that)

It will be seen that both options are possible in every context, but that each is much more likely in some contexts than others. The following explanation involves much that is also mentioned in 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”.

In the subject position, it is clear that the difference is stylistic, that being exceptionally formal. An example is:

(c) That investment is necessary is undisputed.

In the object position, the rare possibility of the fact that seems to exist mainly after the verbs LIKE and DISLIKE and their synonyms APPRECIATE, ENJOY, LOVE, ABHOR, DETEST, HATE and LOATH:

(d) Most students hate the fact that they have to sit exams.

Even with these verbs, however, that can replace the the fact that, provided the word it is added as well (hate it that…: see 190. Special Uses of “it”, #4).

In the complement position (after link verbs like BE, REMAIN or SEEM – see 220. Features of Complements), neither that nor the fact that is particularly common. The fact that often seems to follow a subject noun hinting at desirability or undesirability, such as advantage or problem:

(e) The problem is the fact that nobody cares.

Even here, though, that is not always ruled out. I think choosing the fact that assumes the reader is already familiar with the fact in question, whereas that does not and is helping it to be asserted.

Finally, there are just a few prepositions that either require or allow a following that instead of the more normal the fact that. In needs that when it is clarifying a similarity or difference:

(f) Essays differ from reports in that they should not have subheadings.

For more on this use, see 82. Common Errors in Making Comparisons, “Further Errors” #3.

The exception prepositions except and save can have either that by itself or for + the fact that  (except for the fact that…). For details, see 215. Naming Exceptions.

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3. “like it that”, “like it when” and “like it if”

As mentioned above, verbs meaning “like” and “dislike” can be followed by that provided it is present in between. However, like it etc. can also be followed by other conjunctions than that, especially if or when (see 190. Special Uses of “it”, #4). These differ from that and each other as follows.

Both …it that and …it when introduce an event or situation that definitely happens, i.e. is a fact. However, it that… focuses on the general existence of this fact, whereas it when… is about the time of its occurrence. Thus, if hate it that was used in (d), the meaning would be that most students hate the very idea of having to sit exams, whereas with hate it when the meaning would be that the experience of doing exams was hated rather than the necessity of taking them.

Choosing …it if, by contrast, suggests that the event or situation could possibly not happen at all. In (d), the meaning would still be that most students hate taking exams, but there also would be a suggestion that some never take one. For more on if versus when, see 118. Problems with Conditional “If”, #3.

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4. “tell…to VERB” versus “tell…that…should VERB”

If you tell someone to do something, you are giving an order (see 208. Verbs with an Object + Infinitive, #1). However, telling someone that they should do something is advising (see 187. Advising and Recommending). Both of these meanings are often presented as types of indirect “command” (see 150. Verb Choices with Reported Speech).

For more on TELL, see 292. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar 2, #4.

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5. “development of” versus “development in”

Of after development accompanies a noun saying what receives the development. If the meaning of development was expressed by its related verb DEVELOP, of would disappear and the noun after it would become the object of DEVELOP (see 31. Prepositions after “Action” Nouns 1).

On the other hand, in after development helps to name a broader area containing the recipient of the development. If the meaning of development was expressed by the verb DEVELOP, in would remain before its noun, creating an adverb phrase, so that there would be no object. DEVELOP without an object indicates self-development or economic development. For a full analysis of development, see 201. Words with Complicated Grammar, #1.

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6. “see … be”, “see … being” and “see … to be”

A noun (or equivalent) after the verb SEE is often followed by another verb, of which it is the subject. Quite often, this verb is a “bare” infinitive (a to verb without to) – a use that typically expresses an action rather than a state and gives SEE the meaning of “observe”:

(g) On seeing the liquid change colour, reduce the heat.

This use of “bare infinitives” is typical not just of SEE but of various other perception verbs, as well as of LET, MAKE and HAVE (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, Compulsory Use #2).

Sometimes, a bare infinitive after an action meaning of SEE is be. This may seem surprising, given that BE is strongly associated with states rather than actions, but it is possible because BE does sometimes have an action meaning. It most familiarly does so when in a continuous tense with a following behaviour noun or adjective, as in …is being a nuisance / honest, but it is also possible after MAKE (see 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #3).

Sometimes, the action meaning of be after SEE + object is expressed with being instead:

(h) It is unusual to see people be/being honest.

The use without -ing presents the action as complete, that with it as ongoing.

It is also possible for SEE to precede an object + to be. This sometimes just gives BE its non-action meaning, but often it changes the meaning of SEE from “observe” to “believe” or “consider”: 

(i) Many see global warming to be a threat.

This means many people believe global warming is a threat (see 315. Ways of Using SEE, #11). In this use, SEE is one of the belief verbs surveyed in this blog in 92. Verbs with an Object + “as” – it can indeed have as instead of to be.

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7. “doubtful that” versus “doubtful about whether”

English has various negative expressions that may go before either that or (with a preposition in between) whether. Doubt(ful) is one of a group expressing uncertainty, other examples being sceptical, uncertain(ty) and unsure. Such words are common in academic literature reviews either to express the writer’s own uncertainty, or to report someone else’s:

(j) Scholars are doubtful that (or about whether) Homer was a real person.

Grammatically, that introduces an indirect “statement”, whether an indirect “question”. The meaning difference, though, is small. Doubtful that implies disagreement with someone who believes the point in question is true. Doubtful whether, on the other hand, does not imply the existence of someone with such a belief. 

Note that the conjunction status of that and whether after an uncertainty word means that neither is possible when the expression of the uncertain idea lacks a verb. In such situations, a preposition – typically about – is required instead (see the end of 219. Wording next to Indirect Questions).

The positive opposites of uncertainty words, such as definite and no doubt, can only link with a following verb by means of that, not whether (see 157. Tricky Word Contrasts 5, #1).

Another group of negative expressions that can precede either that or a preposition + whether indicate ignorance rather than uncertainty. Common examples are ignorant, unaware, unknown (after it + BE), and the verb NOT KNOW. With these, that indicates a truth that cannot be disputed, whether only a possible one. Consider this:

(k) The participants did not know that they were being observed.

We understand here that observation of the participants really happened. However, with whether instead of that, the reality of the observation is left unconfirmed.