173. “Do Research” or “Make Research”?

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It can be difficult to choose the right verb before a noun made from another verb

THE PROBLEM OF VERB CHOICE WITH WORDS LIKE “RESEARCH”

English possesses numerous verb-noun combinations like give an answer and make a decision, where the noun is derived from a verb meaning the same as the whole combination (ANSWER and DECIDE in the examples). The noun is very often, but not always, of the “action” kind (see 280. Alternative Meanings of “Action” Nouns), while the new verb with it needs selecting from a limited but quite large group of possibilities.

One question concerning combinations of this kind – when they are preferable to the simple verb – is considered elsewhere within these pages in 39. “Decide” or “Make a Decision”?. The focus here is on matching verb-derived nouns with the correct partner verb. This is not always easy because the combinations are often based more on convention than logic.

Consider, for example, the verb needed with research (without a because it is uncountable). A common incorrect choice is MAKE. The right verb is DO, but there is nothing in the usual meanings of MAKE and DO that can indicate this.

The most frequent verbs used in combinations of this kind – some much more commonly than others – include the following:

ACHIEVE success
BRING ABOUT an end
CARRY OUT an action
CAUSE surprise
CONDUCT an inquiry
DO research
DRAW a conclusion
DRAW UP a list
EFFECT a change
FEEL regret
FIND a solution
MAKE a decision
GIVE a definition
HAVE a tendency
PAY attention
PERFORM an operation
PROVIDE assistance
PUT an end to
REACH an agreement
SUFFER loss
TAKE note
UNDERGO treatment

The sections below list common noun partners of these verbs, and seek clues to their discovery within the type of meaning that either they or the verbs express.

Readers seeking information in this blog about other kinds of verb-object combination are referred to 273. Verb-Object Collocations.

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NOUNS WITH make

MAKE is one of the commonest verbs in the combinations in question. A very likely kind of partner noun is derived from verbs of saying, and similarly can or must be followed by that.

Examples are an admission, an agreement, an allegation, an argument, an assertion, a claim, a comment, a comparison (+ between), a complaint, a criticism, a defence (+ of), a demand (+ for), a distinction (+ between), an enquiry (+ about), an implication, a list (+of), mention (+ of), an observation, a plea, a prediction, a promise, a proposal, a recommendation, (a) reference (+ to), a remark, a request, a speech (+ about), a statement, a suggestion, a threat, a turn and an utterance.

Alternatives to MAKE include DRAW UP with a list, DRAW with a distinction, and PUT FORWARD with an argument, a proposal and a recommendation. GIVE is also possible with the underlined verbs, though often with a slightly different meaning (see below).

In addition, “thought” nouns commonly have MAKE. Examples are a calculation, an analysis (+ of), an assessment, a connection (+ with/between), a decision, a discovery, an estimate, a judgement, a link (+ with/between), a mistake and a plan. However, an idea needs HAVE.

MAKE is also found with various other verb-derived nouns, including an acquisition, a change, a find, a gain, an impact, an improvement, a journey, a loss, a move, a movement, progress, a purchase, a recovery, reforms, a repair, a rush (+ for), a sale, a start, a surge and a visit (+ to).

For more about MAKE, see 141. Ways of Using MAKE.

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NOUNS WITH give

Most of the verb-related nouns that typically combine with GIVE also allow the more formal-sounding PROVIDE (exceptions in the lists below are underlined). Many come from verbs of saying, just as many MAKE ones do – a possible source of error. Common examples are one’s acceptance (of), an account (of), an answer, a command, consideration (to), a definition (of), a description (of), an explanation, an illustration (of), an indication, an instruction, an outline (of), a presentation (of), proof, a reaction (to), a response, a summary (of) and a warning.

In this list, nouns without a preposition can be followed by that. The prepositions are what I have elsewhere called “object-showing” (see 31. Prepositions after “Action” Nouns 1). It is notable that many of the nouns refer to an essay-writing activity. For a discussion of corresponding verbs, see 94. Essay-Instruction Words.

The typical meaning of GIVE with nouns like the above is the “supply” one rather than the basic ownership-transfer one (see 244. Special Uses of GIVE, #1). This latter meaning is sometimes found, though: usually with a noun that elsewhere would combine with a verb other than GIVE:

(a) Suggestions can be given to the Dean.

The typical verb with suggestions is MAKE. GIVE here implies more than just suggesting: that the suggestions are physically transferable – perhaps written on pieces of paper. 

With some other nouns, GIVE meaning “supply” is an alternative to MAKE, but again is slightly different. To give an assessment, for example, is to make an existing one public for other people to appreciate, whereas to make an assessment is just to create one, not necessarily in public view. Other nouns with this dual use include an analysis, an argument, a comparison, a list and a summary.

A similar dual use involves nouns listed below under REACH, such as a conclusion. REACH is again personal, suggesting one’s own achievement, while GIVE is interpersonal, indicating sharing.

Apart from the categories listed above, GIVE nouns also include assistance, attention, a boost, a demonstration, help, reinforcement and service. For the use of PAY or TURN with attention instead of GIVE, see 132. Tricky Word Contrasts 4, #3.

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OTHER COMMON VERBS

1. DO

Relevant noun objects of this verb seem rather random but tend to represent brief actions. They include *an appraisal, a calculation, damage, a deal, a deed, (an) exercise, an experiment, homework, *an investigation, practice, a repetition, *research, *a review, *a survey, a task and work.

The underlined nouns allow CARRY OUT to make the action sound more extended. Nouns marked * allow UNDERGO to express a passive action. Damage allows SUFFER instead. An appraisal, a calculation and a deal additionally allow MAKE.

In addition, there is DO + an examination and a test, meaning “undergo academic assessment” (the role of teachers being to SET or GIVE it). By contrast, with the medical meaning of examination and test, the role of doctors is expressed with CARRY OUT, that of patients with UNDERGO.

For more, see 212. Special Uses of “Do 1“.

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2. CARRY OUT, PERFORM and CONDUCT

These typically accompany extended actions, often of the data-gathering kind. CARRY OUT and PERFORM can accompany all of the nouns in the list below. CARRY OUT is perhaps a little less formal (see 108. Formal & Informal Words). CONDUCT is an additional possibility with the underlined nouns.

The nouns are an action, *an analysis, *an appraisal, *an assessment, *a check, *an examination (non-academic), an experiment, an interview (not PERFORM), an investigation, a procedure, *(a) reconstruction, registration (not PERFORM), *reforms (not PERFORM), research, a review, *repairs, research (allows DO but not PERFORM), *a search, *a survey, treatment and *a study.

The nouns marked * here can be brief as well as extended, and then more typically have MAKE or, less formally, DO.

Some other meaning contrasts also exist. If you make a decision you decide to do something, whereas to carry out one is to make it happen. To make an enquiry is to ask something, but to carry out or conduct one is to gather information over time, in the manner of police or researchers. To perform an operation is to administer surgery, but to carry out one is just to do something.

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3. HAVE

Combination with verb-related nouns is one of numerous uses of HAVE (see 116. Rarer Uses of HAVE, #7). Unlike with MAKE and GIVE, there is often an implication that the noun meaning (often an emotion) is uncontrolled or even passive. This is the case, for example, with *a belief, *a desire, *a feeling, *hope, a liking, a need, *regret, sight of, success, *a suspicion, a tendency, *a wish and *a yearning. The nouns marked * can combine with that. Most of the emotion nouns also allow FEEL.

Other partner nouns express an action involving other people. Examples are an argument, a debate, a disagreement, a discussion, an encounter, an impact, an influence and a meeting. Impact also allows MAKE (suggesting more intention). Note that an argument after HAVE possesses the non-academic, everyday meaning of “verbal fight”: the academic meaning of “reasoned case” (see 167. Ways of Arguing 1) needs PUT FORWARD or MAKE.

HAVE also combines informally with many action nouns spelled the same as their verb, such as a go, a look and a try.

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4. REACH

Many objects of this verb are metaphorical destinations. Examples are agreement, an answer, a climax, a compromise, a conclusion, a decision, a diagnosis, an end, an estimate, fulfilment, mastery, an outcome, a proof, retirement, satisfaction, a solution and an understanding. In many cases, COME TO is a less formal alternative (see 290. Ways of Using COME, #4)

Underlining above shows usability with GIVE to mean communicating rather than achieving. A decision and an estimate replace REACH with MAKE when the time involved is brief. A conclusion also allows DRAW. Other alternative verbs are ACHIEVE (a compromise, mastery, satisfaction, a solution, success), ATTAIN and FIND (a compromise, satisfaction, a solution, success).

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5. TAKE

With some noun objects, the meaning of “acquire” is evident, e.g. control, hold, a measurement, note, ownership, possession, receipt and a view (see 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE, #10). TAKE also accompanies action, aim, care, flight, heed, a risk and a step. With a decision, it can replace MAKE, with a look HAVE.

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6. UNDERGO and SUFFER

Like some uses of HAVE, these verbs give passive meaning to an object noun. For example, undergoing a doctor’s examination is the passive of conducting one. With UNDERGO, the noun tends to represent a service provided by other people (see 21. Active Verbs with Non-Active Meanings). Further examples are analysis, change, checks, an investigation, repairs, review, scrutiny, training, transformation, transmission, treatment and trial.

SUFFER is commoner with nouns representing undesirable events, e.g. damage, decline, deprivation, disruption, doubt, erosion, a fall, infection, a loss, oppression, punishment, reduction, repression and restrictions.

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7. CAUSE, EFFECT and BRING ABOUT

These verbs can accompany many of the object nouns that passive-suggesting verbs also accompany. Common nouns (with their typical passive-suggesting verbs) are (a) change (UNDERGO), damage (SUFFER), a drop (SUFFER), an end (REACH), a fall (HAVE, SUFFER), an increase (EXPERIENCE), a reconciliation, a reduction (SUFFER), renewal (UNDERGO), a rise (EXPERIENCE), success (HAVE) and a surprise (HAVE).

A change and a reduction also allow MAKE, while damage also allows DO.

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8. PUT

This is relatively rare before a verb-related noun. It accompanies an end (to), a stop (to) and emphasis (on). The last of these also allows PLACE and GIVE (+ to).

172. Multi-Use Suffixes

Some suffixes typify more than one word class

DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE

Suffixes are meaningful word endings. Some make different grammatical forms of a single word, others make new words. Examples of the first kind are -s on verbs (adding singular meaning to them) and superlative -est on adjectives. Examples of the second kind are -ly, frequently added to adjectives to make adverbs, and -ness, a common means of changing adjectives into nouns (see 255. Nouns Made from Adjectives).

Suffixes that I call “multi-use” belong to the second category. They help to make words belonging to different word classes. They exclude suffixes in the first category even though some of those are actually possible in words of different grammatical types (-s on both verbs and nouns, for example, and -ing on both gerunds and participles). They also exclude suffixes belonging to both categories, such as -ing (able to change verbs into nouns as well as into another form of themselves: see 240. Nouns that End with -ing) and -ed (able to make verbs into adjectives as well as other forms of themselves: see 291. Subtleties of “-ed”, #6).

Strictly speaking, suffixes in the second category should, like those in the first, be removable to leave a possible independent word (see 106. Word-Like Suffixes). For example, -ly in the adverb quickly is combined with the different dictionary word quick, an adjective.

Nevertheless, English has many words with a suffix-like ending that gives word-class information but leaves no possible word if dropped. For example, individual is indicated by its -al ending to be a noun or adjective, but individu- is not a possible word. There is a similar issue with prefixes (see 146. Some Important Prefix Types). Suffix-like endings are included in the discussion below of multi-use “suffixes”.

Not all suffixes in the second category are multi-use: -ness and -ity, for example, indicate only nouns, -ous mainly adjectives. However, multi-use suffixes are numerous. I believe their existence can cause problems for learners of English. In reading, for example, where knowledge of suffixes can help word meanings to be guessed (see 177. How to Guess Meanings in a Text), they may mislead about the type of word being guessed, thus reducing deductive efficiency. My aim here is to extensively list and illustrate multi-use suffixes, in the hope that readers with more awareness of them might be helped to avoid error in both reading and writing.

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COMMON MULTI-USE SUFFIXES

1. -ly (Adverb/Adjective)

Although -ly is commonly associated with adverbs (easily, quickly, truly etc.), many adverbs lack it (e.g. there, yesterday, already, sometimes), and surprisingly many adjectives have it (see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs, #6). Dropping -ly from an adjective usually leaves a noun, sometimes an adjective, and sometimes no word at all (marked * below).

A few -ly adjectives can also be an adverb – e.g. daily, *early, *only and poorly – but a fair number are only adjectives and cannot occupy adverb positions in a sentence unless combined with in a…way. Examples are deathly, earthly, elderly, heavenly, hilly, *holy, *jolly, lively, lovely, lowly, (wo)manly, *silly, slovenly, *sprightly, stately, timely, *ugly and worldly.

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2. -ful (Adjective/Noun)

This ending is typical of adjectives, e.g. hopeful, but there is also a group of nouns like spoonful (see 106. Word-Like Suffixes).

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3. -al (Adjective/Noun)

This suffix very often makes adjectives out of nouns of Latin origin (see 45. Latin Clues to English Spelling). Examples are actual, autumnal, colonial, controversial, emotional, exceptional, fatal, focal, industrial, informational (see 296. Tricky Word Contrasts 12, #5), intentional, magical, minimal, motivational, national, natural, normal, original, pictorial, regional, residual, seasonal, sensational, sexual, spatial, special, substantial, terminal, traditional, and universal.

Sometimes, an -al adjective comes from a noun of Greek origin (see 90. The Greek Impact on English Vocabulary). Examples are comical, critical, logical, mathematical, mystical, pyramidal, rhetorical, statistical, tactical and topical.

Occasionally, -al is added to -ic adjectives made from a Greek noun, so that two suffixes are present. Examples are analytical, cyclical, economical, graphical, historical, mythical, numerical, political and rhythmical. Quite often, the added -al makes a surprising meaning difference (see economic/ economical in 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #5; and graphic/ graphical in 114. Tricky Word Contrasts 3, #1).

Not to be confused with adjectival -al on -ic words is -ical in biological (and adjectives of other -ology words), ecumenical, hypothetical, medical, theatrical and typical. The suffix here must be -ical because dropping -al leaves no possible -ic word.

One further type of -al adjective is not a word without it. Examples are capital, dual, eternal, external, individual, mutual, nasal, nocturnal, nominal, potential, radical, rational and usual.

Nouns with -al are probably less numerous than adjectives. Some have the same spelling, e.g. capital, colonial, individual, radical and terminal. Others are made from verbs and usually express an “action” (see 249. Action Noun Endings). Examples are avowal, bestowal, betrayal, denial, dismissal, dispersal, disposal, perusal, proposal, recital, referral, refusal, removal, renewal, reversal, trial and withdrawal. With reprisal, dropping -al leaves no other word.

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4. -ate (Verb/Adjective/Noun)

Another Latin-derived suffix, this must not be confused with non-suffix -ate in words like hate and state. However, dropping it tends to leave a Latin rather than English word.

The most common -ate words are verbs, with the vowel in -ate usually pronounced as long /ei/. Examples are advocate, animate, articulate, calculate, celebrate, consummate, create, dedicate, delegate, deliberate, deteriorate, dictate, discriminate, dominate, donate, duplicate, elevate, emanate, enumerate, escalate, estimate, exacerbate, exaggerate, facilitate, fascinate, generate, gesticulate, impersonate, incriminate, inflate, instigate, interrogate, irrigate, lacerate, mandate, nominate, percolate, perforate, predicate, prostrate, relegate, repatriate, replicate, rotate, subordinate, terminate, triangulate, vibrate and violate.

Adjectives with -ate are quite common. Again, dropping it leaves no English word. Its pronunciation is usually weak /әt/ (+ in the list = exceptions). Examples are affectionate, animate, articulate, celibate, consummate, degenerate, deliberate, duplicate, incarnate, indeterminate, indiscriminate, +irate, numerate, passionate, profligate, +prostrate and subordinate.

The underlined spellings above are the same as verb ones. This means their use with BE needs particular care (see 140. Words with Unexpected Grammar 2, #f).

Most nouns with -ate seem to be spelt the same as verbs, but again need the /әt/ pronunciation (except those with +). Examples are advocate, +caliphate, climate, delegate, estimate, expatriate, +mandate, predicate, subordinate, syndicate and +vertebrate.

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5. -ent (Adjective/Noun)

This Latin-derived suffix again rarely leaves English words when removed but still has to be distinguished from less suffix-like spellings, like those in dent, extent and relent.

The more common use is probably in adjectives. Examples (* indicating true suffixes) are absent, ambient, ambivalent, competent, convenient, current, decent, *dependent (also spelt with -ant), despondent, diligent, *emergent, eminent, expedient, incipient, incumbent, *indulgent, *insistent, insurgent, latent, nascent, patent, permanent, present, prescient, prominent, recent, *reminiscent, *resident, reticent, strident, transient and virulent.

True suffixes here tend to be added to verbs (see 304. Adjectives Made from a Verb, #5), and to be expandable into nouns with -ence or -ency (see 255. Nouns Made from Adjectives).

Nouns with -ent need distinguishing from those with -ment, such as attachment, document, investment and management. Usually, the presence or absence of “m” will  be a sufficient indicator, but there are rare words, such as moment, where “m” belongs to the word’s root rather than its suffix.

Some -ent nouns, such as resident, are spelled the same as adjectives. They are indicated in the list above by underlining. Others are exclusively nouns, e.g. accident, *ascent, *correspondent, *deterrent, incident, moment, nutrient, parent, portent, *president, serpent and patent. This last is also in the adjective list, but the two spellings are not obviously related in meaning – they are probably “homonyms” (see 11. Homonyms and Homographs).

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6. -ant (Adjective/Noun)

This suffix behaves very similarly to -ent. Adjectives (* showing true suffixes) include *abundant, brilliant, *conversant, *defiant, *dominant, elegant, exorbitant, *hesitant, instant, militant, *observant, relevant, *reliant, reluctant, *resistant, *resultant, *significant, *tolerant, vacant and *vibrant.

The underlined spellings are also nouns. Other nouns are *accountant, *assailant, *debutant, *defendant, *entrant, *determinant, *inhabitant, *migrant, *mutant, tyrant, vagrant and *variant. Most of these name types of people, with -ant as a true suffix. 

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7. -ic, -tic, -atic (Adjective/Noun)

In many words, these endings are not a full suffix (* again shows where they are). Adjectives with -ic or -tic include *analytic, archaic, *cinematic, civic, comic, *cosmic, *dramatic, *economic, *enigmatic, *fantastic, frantic, gastric, *graphic, *historic, linguistic, *manic, *panoramic, *photographic, *poetic, *politic, prolific, *specific, *strategic, *synthetic, *terrific and tragic. Note that comic means “related to comedy” but comical means “amusing”.

-atic adjectives are usually derived from Greek words ending in -ma (see 90. The Greek Impact). Examples are automatic, *problematic, rheumatic, *symptomatic and *thematic.

Nouns with -ic or -tic include antic, comic, critic, *graphic, ethic, heretic, *mimic, mystic, statistic, synthetic, tactic and topic. The underlined examples are the only ones unable to be made into an adjective with -al (see #3 above). Mimic can be a verb as well as a noun.

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8. -er (Noun/Verb)

This suffix, of course, is common on comparative adjectives – but that is a more grammatical use. A familiar less-grammatical use changes verbs into nouns for types of people, e.g. baker, courier, builder, driver, leader, member, player, reporter, teacher and writer. Quite often -er is also found on equipment nouns like computer, cooker, gutter, marker, printer, starter and trailer.

In verbs, -er tends not to be a full suffix. In the following, * shows where it might be: barter, batter, deliver, butcher, *counter, father, feather, flatter, flutter, flower, gather, hammer, lather, mother, pander, paper, partner, recover, *taper, tether, thunder, totter and wither. The underlined words can also be nouns.

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9. -tory (Adjective/Noun)

This suffix (full where marked *) seems equally likely in adjectives and nouns. Adjectives include *anticipatory, *articulatory, auditory, *confirmatory, derogatory, *discriminatory, *explanatory, *exploratory, *combinatory, *inflammatory, *introductory, *mandatory, *migratory, *participatory, *preparatory, *regulatory, *respiratory, *satisfactory and *transitory.

Examples of nouns are conservatory, dormitory, factory, inventory, *observatory, refectory, repository, *signatory, territory and trajectory.

Note that history cannot be considered a -tory word: its Greek root associates it more with -y.

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10. -ure (Noun/Verb)

This is another suffix needing to be distinguished from numerous non-suffix endings with the same spelling, such as pure and assure. The borderline is sometimes unclear.

Some nouns with -ure are of the “action” kind, made by expanding a verb. Examples are closure, departure, enclosure, erasure, exposure, failure, pressure and seizure. In nouns not made like this, -ure tends not to be a full suffix. Examples (* showing a possible full suffix) are adventure, *architecture, capture, denture, fissure, fracture, gesture, lecture, leisure, manufacture, measure, *mixture, nature, nomenclature, nurture, pasture, picture, posture, procure, rupture and venture.

Verbs with -ure are less common: most are spelt the same as nouns (underlined above).

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The above lists cover most but not all multi-use suffixes. Despite the absence of such suffixes as -y (showing both adjectives like healthy and nouns like mastery) and -ing (found on nouns as well as verbs: see 240. Nouns that End with “-ing”), the lists should provide a good foundation for appreciating how often and where English suffixes can vary in their meanings.