186. Language in Oral Presentations

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Oral presentation language is fairly variable, but some expressions are more likely than others

THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN ORAL PRESENTATIONS

Oral presentations are common in both the business and academic worlds. This means there is plenty of published advice on how to do them successfully. There are normally three types of skill that tend to be considered: composition (selecting and organizing the content), delivery (voice projection, pace, eye contact, visual aids etc.), and language. It is, of course, the last of these that tends to receive especial attention in courses for speakers whose mother tongue is not English.

Given the aims of this blog, it is language skills that also feature strongly here. However, since the blog also aims to avoid simply repeating what is said elsewhere, I have sought to include linguistic points that are not often made.

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A KEY DELIVERY SKILL

Although delivery is not the primary concern here, one aspect needs to be highlighted because of its centrality and potential to affect language choice. This is the skill of remembering what to say without writing it all down and reading it to the audience. Reading aloud is an important skill in academia and business, with its own delivery and language subskills (see 91. Pronunciation in Reading Aloud), but it is often not the best method of oral presentation.

The fundamental problem with presentation by reading is that audiences can find it hard to follow. There are good reasons why. Firstly, pre-written texts for reading aloud are linguistically very different from spontaneous speech. A linguistic difference between written and spoken English has always been recognised, but it is only recently that the extent of this difference has been appreciated. It is quite new for separate grammars of spoken and written English to appear, and for the separate spoken and written vocabularies – illustrated in this blog in 108. Formal & Informal Words – to be extensively explored. These linguistic differences make extended reading aloud burdensome to audiences because they force them to listen to a kind of language that they are not used to hearing.

Secondly, pre-written texts differ from spontaneous speech in the way they package the information in them. Whereas written information tends to be given efficiently, with minimal repetition (see 24. Good and Bad Repetition), spoken information tends to be more spread out, with deliberate repetition. The probable reason is that efficient information-giving is less of a problem for readers because they can stop reading at will to re-read or reflect; but it challenges listeners because they can rarely stop the flow of speech, and hence need the information to be less dense to give them time to take it in.

Another problem with reading presentations aloud is that it reduces the speaker’s eye-contact with the audience. The value of eye-contact is said to be the way it simultaneously motivates audiences to listen and informs speakers about the effect of their words.

The most common way of remembering what to say in oral presentations without writing it all down first is by means of notes. These should be much briefer than a mere representation of the entire talk in abbreviated form. What they include should act as reminders of what they leave out. Keywords or headings, with or without a few abbreviated sentences, can be effective reminders. They might be listed all together in one place, or kept separate on cards or sequenced computer screens. It is often useful to reveal them to the audience.

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USEFUL LANGUAGE

The three main stages of a presentation – beginning, middle and end – each have some characteristic language.

1. At the Beginning

After an initial greeting and reminder of the title, it is customary to indicate the overall structure of the talk, naming its sections in the order of their occurrence. One way to do this is with I will, I shall, I am going to or even I want to, followed by a speaking or thinking verb (often like those in essay instructions), such as argue, consider, describe, examine, explain, indicate, outline, present or survey. Verbs of a more informal kind are also common, e.g. deal with, look at and touch on.

These same verbs can also have a subject referring to some or all of the presentation itself, rather than I, such as the first part, section 3 or my main argument. Will must then be used in preference to shall, and there will be becomes a further option. For more on will/shall in introductions, see 147. Types of Future Meaning, #5.

The verbs that show the structure of a presentation will often follow a connector of the time-sequence kind. Common ones are to begin with, initially, afterwards, following that, next, subsequently, then, finally and lastly, as well as number adverbs like first(ly) and secondly (see 227. Time Adverbs). This use of such expressions at the start of a presentation is not quite the same as that within the main body of a text.

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2. In the Middle

Sections in the middle of a presentation usually need their beginnings and endings clearly signalled. A major type of beginning signaller is adverb-like connectors such as next, now, well, OK and number adverbs (firstly, secondly, etc.). For more about now, see 157. Tricky Word Contrasts 5, #2. Well seems mostly to begin the very first point after the general introduction:

(a) In this talk I will be dealing with the various aids available for language learning. Well, dictionaries are an obvious starting point.

Connectors indicating the start of a section can, like most other connectors, be easily paraphrased (see 112. Synonyms of Connectors). A common paraphrase is another. As an adjective, it needs a following noun, e.g.:

(b) ANOTHER useful language learning aid is recording devices.

Using another has the special value of reminding the audience of the list that the new section topic belongs to (underlined). Moreover, it can come later in the sentence (…is/are another X), enabling the starting words to name the new topic (recording devices above).

A further connector synonym is turning to… – useful for topic naming alongside further information in a single sentence. It must go first and, like another, precede a noun or equivalent.

A topic-introducing connector can also be paraphrased in an entire sentence:

(c) Now let me turn to the third advantage.

This is a longer way of saying thirdly. The value of such sentences is that they give both speaker and audience the time to think that is so important in oral communication.

After a topic beginning has been marked with a connector, some verbs are especially common. Where the connector is number-indicating, like thirdly, the verb is likely to be there is (see 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists); after other connectors, notable verbs are COME TO, CONSIDER, EXAMINE, EXPLORE, PRESENT and TURN TO (number adverbs tend only to accompany these within the introductory description of a talk’s overall structure).

Most of these verbs typically follow I (or we) + am/are going to, need to, want to or wish to. They can also follow let me…/us… (see 128. Imperative Verbs in Formal Writing, #7). Only COME TO is exceptional: it just follows I / we, e.g. Now we come to… (see 290. Ways of Using COME, #5).

An alternative to any of these verbs after an introductory connector is a direct question:

(d) Now, what is the most common type of language learning aid?

This is a “rhetorical” question: not inviting an answer from the audience. In writing it would often need an indirect form (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing). Topic-introducing rhetorical questions may use any of the question words, though what about…? can only introduce a topic after the first (see 274. Questions with a Hidden Meaning, #8). Spoken answers to a rhetorical question very often begin with Well, … (see 297. Types of Response to a Question, #5).

After a new section has been signalled and named, the discussion of each part within it should clearly indicate how that part is related to the part before and/or after it. Connectors are obviously useful again here, but mostly of the non-listing kind, such as therefore and for example. Sentence-form connector synonyms are again likely:

(e) Now what can we infer from this? (= “therefore”)

(f) Here’s an example that might make this clearer. (= “for example”)

Another notable kind of language in the central part of presentations accompanies the use of visual information. A visual display can be introduced with a phrase like look at this or here is a slide/ diagram/ table (etc.) showing… . Once the information is displayed, it can be referred to with SEE, e.g. see how…; here we see…; as you can see, … (preferable to the written equivalent as can be seen: see 104. Naming Data Sources with “As”), or with SHOW, e.g. as this shows; as shown here.

The end of each section within a presentation also needs a clear signal. Referring to the information in the section with that or those is especially common (see 234. Adjective and Pronoun Uses of “that”, #2). For example, a speaker might say that is (or those are) the… or that is the end of…. A verb in the present perfect tense can also be a signal, e.g. Right, this section has described…. (see 309. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 5, #2).

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3. At the End

The main things to do at the end of a presentation are to briefly answer the main question being addressed, indicate the arrival of the end, and invite questions.

Sometimes the first of these will be a consequence indicated by preceding arguments and/or evidence. It can be signalled with in conclusion or similar (see 168. Ways of Arguing 2), and will often need to be followed by a reminder of the main contributory points. At other times, the main question will already have been answered by means of a simple list, so that a summary is the only requirement at the end. This can be introduced by to conclude, as a conclusion, to finish or to sum up.

Possible phrases for signalling the end of a presentation are:

(g) Thank you (for listening/for your attention).

(h) That is all I have to say.

(i) And that brings this presentation to an end.

To invite questions, one might say:

(j) Now I’d like to invite questions.

(k) Now I will try to answer any questions you might have.

(l) If you wish to ask about anything, please do (so).

In (l), where do repeats an earlier verb (ask), leaving out so is more emphatic, almost urging (see 212. Special Uses of “Do” 1, #1).

185. Noun Synonyms of Question Words

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Question words have numerous noun alternatives in indirect speech, some with quite challenging grammar

THE NATURE AND OCCURRENCE OF QUESTION WORD SYNONYMS

Question words – how, who, when, why etc. – can often be paraphrased with a noun synonym, for example person for who, time for when and reason for why (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing). Such paraphrases always make indirect questions, even if the equivalent with a question word is direct.

There are some places where a noun is probably more usual than a question word. One is headings (see 178. How to Write a Heading, #1). Another is questions acting as the subject of a verb. In the following example, what alternative form might be given to the question How much training is required?

(a) …is a source of dispute.

A suitable beginning here might be the amount/ quantity of training (that is) required.

On the other hand, when indirect questions are the object of their sentence there is often a freer choice. Consider the following (from 94. Essay Instruction Words):

(b) Describe the way in which language learners acquire grammatical competence.

The underlined words here are quite easily replaced by the question word how. It is only in a few cases that a question word must be used: after some asking words, such as WONDER; in whether questions; after a starting it (e.g. it is interesting why… – see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #8); and when the asking verb and its subject have surrounding commas (see 183. Statements between Commas).

One advantage of nouns may be their ability to indicate whether one or many possibilities are involved – way not ways in (b). Using a noun can also facilitate paraphrasing a question in another text (see 80. How to Paraphrase). This post considers the exact way in which questions can be made with a noun instead of a question word, and explores the variety of available nouns.

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THE GRAMMATICAL FORM OF QUESTIONS STARTING WITH A NOUN

Questions starting with a noun are, like all indirect questions, “noun phrases”. This means they occupy typical noun positions in a sentence – subject, object, complement or partner of a preposition. However, they are a different type of noun phrase from indirect questions made with a question word.

Indirect questions with a question word are sentence-like noun phrases, with their own subject + verb. This verb is not the only one in the sentence, as the words outside the question generally include a verb too (see 219. Wording next to Indirect Questions). The two verbs need what I have elsewhere called a “joining device” (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). This need is met by the question word itself. With such a “joining” role, question words in indirect questions have some similarity to that before indirect statements (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”).

By contrast, indirect questions beginning with a noun are noun phrases of the more ordinary kind: centred on a noun (the one equating to a question word) rather than a verb. This noun will often have other words describing it (“modifiers”), such as an adjective before or a preposition phrase after (see 252. Descriptive Wording after Nouns 1). For example, the noun amount in (a) has an of phrase after it, and way in (b) has a following which statement.

If the central noun in this kind of indirect question is used by itself, it will represent not just the question word in the corresponding standard indirect question, but all the other words too. This is especially likely with who and what questions containing the verb BE. Consider this:

(c) Identifying who the victims were has proved difficult.

It is much easier here just to say the victims. In the same way, instead of why it happened, one can just say the reason.

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COMMON NOUNS CORRESPONDING TO QUESTION WORDS

Most question words have a variety of corresponding nouns, perhaps to allow expression of subtler meanings. Possibilities include:

1. Simple Question Words

HOW

way, means, manner, mode, method, methodology, mechanism, procedure, process, protocol, approach, strategy, style, tactic, technique. Also possible is a noun made from the verb of a direct question, with no special “how” word (see 131. Uses of “Action” Nouns, #6).

WHAT

(re)action, definition, event, thing, nature, occurrence, situation

WHEN

time, date, moment, hour, day, week, occasion, point, stage, period, age, era

WHERE

place, location, position, spot, stage, point, bearings, address, destination, source

WHICH

alternative, choice, option, possibility

WHO

identity, name, person, the ones, those

WHY (two meanings)

(a) cause, determinant, explanation, factors, reason, source;  (b) purpose, intention, intent, aim, motive, end, objective, desire, goal

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Noun equivalents of question words with -ever (whoever, whenever, etc: see 272. Uses of “Ever”, #2) are no different from those of the same question word without -ever.

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2. Compound Question Words

Many nouns correspond to a phrasal question word. Common examples are:

HOW LONG

duration, extent, length, period

HOW MUCH/MANY

amount, degree, extent, magnitude, number, quantity, level

HOW OFTEN

frequency, incidence, number of times, regularity

WHAT … LIKE

appearance, characteristic(s), description, features, nature, quality

WHAT … WITH

apparatus, implement, instrument, tool

One exceptional combination is WHAT ABOUT… . It cannot go in indirect questions, and it has no corresponding noun. Often, its meaning is conveyed with a statement-reporting verb (+ object) instead of an “asking” one – typically SUGGEST or REMIND, depending on the question’s purpose (see 274. Questions with a Hidden Meaning, #1). For example, What about eating? could become …suggested eating. If the meaning is “tell me about…” (see 195. Tricky Word Contrasts 7, #5), ASK or similar is usable, followed by about.

How can make many more compound question words than just those listed above, other examples being how far, how large, how old and how willing. The two words together are sometimes adverb-like – e.g. how often, how quickly – sometimes adjectival – e.g. how old, how far (see 285. Complexities of Question Words, #1). In both cases, the noun synonyms are sometimes derived from the word after how (e.g. willingness), sometimes not (e.g. frequency, age, distance, size). For more about converting adjectives into nouns, see 255. Nouns Made from Adjectives.

Just as many adjectives after how are neutral about quantity (how old does not presuppose “old” – see 94. Essay Instruction Words), so the equivalent nouns may also be neutral (age does not have to mean “old age”). However, to prevent confusion some such nouns may be prefaced with degree of (e.g. degree of success).

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GRAMMATICAL REQUIREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL NOUNS

Sentence (b) above, in illustrating way replacing how, places it before in which:

(b) Describe the way in which language learners acquire grammatical competence.

One could also use way of (…learners’ way of acquiring… ) or, with a slightly different meaning, the way to… (see 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts, #1). However, way in which is common. The words in which are sometimes dropped, but still understood – an example of a “zero” relative.

The reason for which is that the next words, which express the rest of the indirect question, contain an ordinary subject and verb (learners acquire) that are not the only one in the sentence (cf. describe). This means there must be a joining word, and that is what the relative pronoun which is. No such joining word is needed in questions with a question word rather than noun because question words are themselves joining words.

The need for a preposition (in) before which exists because which is not the subject, object or complement of the verb after it. In this situation, which can only have adverb status – just like how, the question word being replaced – and placing a preposition before it is the way to give it that status.

The preposition between way and which must be in because that is the “typical” preposition before way: in a … way (see the end of 111. Words with a Typical Preposition). Some synonyms of way – e.g. manner, mode, style – also typically follow in, but procedure and process tend to have by. Period and era need in. Dictionaries often name the typical preposition used before a noun.

Other adverb question words are when, where, why, how + adverb (e.g. how often), and some uses of what…with. Question words that are not adverbs include the pronouns who, whom, which and what, and the adjectives which, what, whose and how + adjective (see 285. Complexities of Question Words, #1).

To further illustrate the wording needed when a noun replaces an adverb question word, consider the alternative to when in the following:

(d) One MAY ASCERTAIN when acquisition IS complete through testing.

One possible noun here is the moment. It needs which because a following verb (is) is present. A preposition is also necessary because which is not the subject, object or complement of is (the subject is acquisition and the complement is complete). This preposition has to be the normal one required by moment – at. Thus, the moment must be followed by at which.

There is actually another possibility: the moment when. This when looks like a return of the question word – but it is not. It is still an adverb, but “relative” rather than “interrogative”. The reason is that, instead of helping to make a noun-like indirect question, it is helping to make an adjective-like description of the noun before it (moment) – a key indicator of relative clauses (see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses). Although indirect questions can similarly follow a noun, it must be an “asking” or “explaining” one, like question or indication, and that makes them noun-like, not adjective-like (see 285. Complexities of Question Words, #3).

Other question words that can become relative adverbs are where and why. Indeed, place where and reason why are practically the norm, preferred to place in which and reason for which (see 306. Ways of Giving a Reason, #3). Confusingly, though, *way how is not the norm: way in which must be used instead!

Nouns corresponding to non-adverb question words still tend to need a relative pronoun, but mostly without a preposition. Consider what might replace who in the following:

(e) Teachers must know who needs attention.

Suitable “nouns” might be those, the learners or the students. They all need a following (relative) who or that. No preposition is possible because who/that is the subject of needs. If the above question had what instead of who, one might use the noun area plus which or that, e.g. the area that needs… .

An extra possibility with such sentences is to drop the relative pronoun and make the verb a participle – those/the area needing above (see 52. Participles Placed Just after their Noun).

Finally, noun equivalents of how + ADJ, e.g. how willing…, normally lack a verb, rather like the equivalents of who/what + BE, as in (c) above. They will often precede of…. Thus, how willing X is becomes the willingness of X. Sometimes, though, the meaning is clearer if how + ADJ is kept.