245. Adjectives with a Participle Ending

Adjectives can end in “-ing” or “-ed” just like participles, but they are very different

LINKS BETWEEN ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES

Participles are verbs with -ing or -ed (or the irregular -ed equivalent used by some verbs after HAVE, such as taken, begun and put). They may be part of a verb phrase with HAVE or BE, or acting alone in an adjective-like way. It is this latter use that is the focus here.

The adjective-like nature of lone participles is useful for distinguishing them from verbal -ing and -ed words that are not participles. In particular, they distinguish participles from “gerunds” – lone -ing words that act like nouns rather than adjectives (see 71. Gerund and Participle Uses of “-ing”) – and of course from lone -ed words acting as verbs in the past simple tense.

Unfortunately, though, English has numerous -ing and -ed words that are full adjectives (see 304. Adjectives Made from a Verb, #3). The majority probably evolved from a participle use, though a few, like bearded and skilled, are made by adding -ed to a noun (see 291. Subtleties of “-ed”, #7). The existence of these adjectives means, of course, that the adjective-like properties of participles are no longer a distinguishing feature. This post is particularly concerned with ways in which lone participles differ from verb-derived -ing and -ed adjectives.

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DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF “-ED” ADJECTIVES

1. Usability with a Causal Preposition Other than “by”

A lone -ed participle typically has passive meaning (see 291. Subtleties of “-ed”, #2), so that any mention of a causal noun is usually in a following by phrase. By contrast, after many (but not all) -ed adjectives, causal by is replaced by a different preposition:

(a) Anyone interested in today’s topic is invited to next week’s seminar.

Here, today’s topic is a cause or source of people being interested, and its placement after in instead of by shows an adjective use.

An -ed word that cannot be an adjective, such as helped, could only have by in (a). Interested too could have by, but only as a participle of the verb INTEREST. As such, interested would represent interest resulting directly from today’s topic. As an adjective, it represents a longer-standing interest. With -ed adjectives, this kind of meaning difference seems fairly typical.

Other -ed adjectives that show a cause with an alternative to by include amused (at), bored (with), concerned (about, with), confused (about), convinced (about), disappointed (about/with), disgusted (at/with), embarrassed (about, at), frightened (of), impressed (with), married (to), pleased (with), occupied (with), relaxed (about), relieved (at), satisfied (with), surprised (at), tired (of), used (to), worried (about) and upset (at/with).

Notice how these tend, like interested, to describe people. Many can introduce an abbreviated form of indirect speech (see 300. Adjective Indicators of Indirect Speech). Those with multiple alternatives to by may express different meanings with them (see 134. Words with a Variable Preposition). For more about married, see 201. Words with Complicated Grammar, #4.

It is important to keep in mind that the above guideline applies only to prepositions with causal meaning. Both adjectives and participles can accompany prepositions with other meanings, where non-use of by has no significance. This is the case, for example, with the participles acquainted (with), involved (in) and comprised (of). In fact, after acquainted and involved it would be possible to add a phrase with causal by alongside the phrase with the other preposition.

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2. Intransitivity of the Related Verb

The main problem with examining preposition usage to decide whether or not a particular -ed word is being used, or could be used, as an adjective is that the preposition will not always be known. An alternative approach that can on rare occasions indicate an -ed adjective is to consider whether the related verb can have an object (i.e. be “transitive”). If it can, adjective status will remain unclear, but if it cannot (i.e. is “intransitive”) then adjective status will be confirmed.

Compare, for example, used cars with grown men. We cannot tell with this test whether or not used is an adjective because the verb USE normally has an object – we must mention what is used after any active voice form. However, we can conclude that grown must be an adjective because GROW meaning “become mature” allows no object (see 113. Verbs that Cannot Be Passive). There is a logic here: -ed participles are usually passive; intransitive verbs cannot be passive; therefore, an -ed form of an intransitive verb must be an adjective.

However, not all intransitive verbs can become adjectives with -ed. Those that can tend to occur in common expressions like escaped prisoners, collapsed buildings, fallen heroes and grown men. Some are also usable in the ordinary passive form with BE (see 207. Exotic Grammar Structures 4, #1).

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3. Unexpected Meaning

Sometimes the adjective meaning of an -ed word differs more markedly from the participle one than is the case with interested. Examples are:

¹ 261. Words with Complicated Grammar 3, #2

² 261. Words with Complicated Grammar 3, #3

³ 257. Structures with a Double Meaning 4, #5

⁴ 35. Words Followed by “to -ing”

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4. Lack of a Related Ordinary Adjective

Some state-describing -ed verbs, such as opened, have a related adjective (open), while others, such as closed, do not. Related adjectives are recognisable as such through being usable without an ending after BE – an impossibility with verbs (see 140. Words with Unexpected Grammar 2, #f):

(b) Shops were open for business.

Close, by contrast, could not go in (b): it would have to be either closed or closing (although there is an adjective spelled the same as close – albeit pronounced differently – its meaning, similar to near, is unrelated). Other verbs with a related adjective include cleared (clear), filled (full), freed (free), narrowed (narrow), roughened (rough) and slowed (slow). Most of the adjectives, it will be seen, are spelled exactly as the base-form verb.

What I am proposing here is that -ed words like opened, which have a related adjective, are only participles, whereas -ed forms like closed can be either an adjective or a participle. This is because -ed words like opened cannot express the kind of meaning conveyed by adjectives like open whereas -ed words like closed can (see 66. Types of Passive Verb Meaning).

Consider again sentence (b). With were opened replacing were open, two interpretations are possible, both new. One is dynamic (a change from closed to open); the other is stative (no change). Although the adjective’s meaning is also stative, it is not the same: were opened suggests recent opening, whereas were open says nothing about when the opening happened. On the other hand, with were closed in (b), three interpretations are possible: the adjective one of “state that could be permanent” as well as the two that are possible with were opened.

Thus, to sum up, closed (and other state-describing -ed forms with no differently-spelt adjective) can be an adjective as well as a verb, whereas opened (and forms like it) cannot. Closed shops can correspond as well to open shops as to opened shops. Note that helped is not usually an adjective on this criterion because it does not usually describe a state.

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5. Special Pronunciation

In a few -ed adjectives, the ending has a different pronunciation from that of the related participle: /id/ instead of /t/ or /d/ (see 243. Pronunciation Secrets, #2). Example words are beloved, blessed, aged, dogged, learned, crooked, ragged, supposed.

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FEATURES TYPICAL OF “-ING” ADJECTIVES

6. Derivation from an Object-Needing Verb

If an -ing word is made from a verb that normally needs an object (see 8. Object-Dropping Errors), its usability after BE without an object will show it is an adjective. In the following sentence, this is the case with demanding:

(c)  Hungry children can be demanding.

Here, demanding is an adjective because the sentence is grammatical despite the verb DEMAND being object-needing. Demanding would be part of an ordinary verb if a noun like food followed it. Its adjective meaning is “insistent”.

Other -ing adjectives that like demanding are made from an object-needing verb include alarming, amusing, becoming (= suiting), boring, calming, confusing, cutting, depressing, engaging, entertaining, fitting, flattering, frightening, fulfilling, heartening, inspiring, interesting, knowing, lasting, leading, off-putting, pleasing, pressing, promising, punishing, revealing, rewarding, saddening, satisfying, shocking, striking, surprising, taxing, testing, tiring and welcoming. More is available on knowing in 254. Tricky Word Contrasts 10, #5, and on satisfying in 114. Tricky Word Contrasts 3, #9.

However, not every -ing word made from an object-needing verb can be an adjective. Exceptions, recognizable from their need to have an object when they follow BE, include facilitating, involving and taking.

If an -ing word is made from one of the many English verbs that do not normally need an object, it seems much less likely to be usable as an adjective. For example, existing, falling, going, happening, increasing, remaining and rising are only participles. There are, however, some exceptions, such as gleaming, glistening, glowing, fluctuating and scheming. For a list of common verbs that cannot have an object, see 113. Verbs that Cannot Be Passive.

Note that there are also some -ing words, such as fleeting and uncomplaining, that are not directly derived from a verb and hence can only be adjectives.

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7. Ability to follow very

If an -ing word sounds natural after very, it is almost certainly an adjective. The reverse seems true too: not sounding natural after very probably indicates a participle.

In this respect, -ing adjectives differ from ordinary adjectives, which only allow very if they are “gradable” (expressing a quality that can exist in different amounts – see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much). A possibly non-gradable -ing adjective is revealing, but it easily allows very. Participles with -ing express the idea of very with much, e.g. much improving (see 98. “Very”, “Much” and “Very Much”).

With -ed words, very is not such a reliable adjective indicator, since it easily accompanies participles with by:

(d) The results were very affected by the weather.

Moreover, very cannot accompany non-gradable -ed adjectives like married.

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FEATURES OF BOTH ADJECTIVE TYPES

8. Inability to Directly Follow their Noun

Adjectives rarely follow their noun directly, but participles often can or must. Thus, if an -ing or -ed word seems possible or necessary after its noun, it is probably a participle. For example, obtained and applying typically follow their noun (the results obtained, the method applying) so must be participles.

Words usable both before and after their noun tend to keep the same meaning and to be participles as a result. An example is preferred. However, some change their meaning, becoming adjectives when used before. For example, the participle used in the car used just means “utilised”, but in used car becomes an adjective meaning “second-hand” (see 52. Participles Placed Just after their Noun, #6).

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9. Occurrence within a Hyphenated Word

Most hyphenated -ing and -ed words, e.g. law-breaking, all-encompassing, well-known and mixed-up, are adjectives. Exceptions are usually gerunds, not participles (see 223. Uses of Hyphens, #4, and the end of 106. Word-Like Suffixes).

244. Special Uses of GIVE

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The verb GIVE can mean many more things than just “transfer possession”

THE VARIABILITY OF give

The verb GIVE is another of those familiar small verbs whose uses and derivatives are so varied that they seem likely to include a few surprises even for people who have been studying English for a long time, and hence to warrant attention in a blog like this. Although dictionaries often cover much of the variety, the necessarily brief descriptions there can make understanding and memorisation of the large amounts of information quite difficult.

In keeping with the general aims of this blog, I do not propose to say much about conversational uses of GIVE or its basic use as an object-requiring verb meaning ”transfer possession” or “cause to possess”. The approach is thus similar to that in the Guinlist posts about the small common words HAVE,  MAKE,  GO,  GIVE,  TAKE and COME.

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SPECIAL MEANINGS BEFORE AN OBJECT

In addition to its basic meanings before an object noun, GIVE has a variety of less common ones, usually with some fairly predictable objects (see 273. Verb-Object Collocations). The need for an indirect object that the basic meanings often have (give X to Y or give Y X: see 126. Verbs with an Indirect Object) is sometimes equally strong and sometimes less so. In the example sentences below, indirect objects are capitalised.

1. “Show” or “Produce”

Typical objects here represent a sight or sound that is not so much transferred as made visible or audible:

(a) Facial expressions can give (OTHERS) an indication of annoyance.

(b) The councillors gave a shout of approval.

Other typical objects include a cry, a gasp, an imitation of…, a look, a message, a scream, a sign, a signal and a smile, plus mathematical quantities resulting from calculation (dividing by x gives…). Underlining here shows unlikely allowance of an indirect object.

Although sounds are a notable object type with this meaning of GIVE, not all have GIVE: those that originate outside their source often have MAKE (make a bang, make a noise, make a sound etc.).

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2. “Supply (Requested Information)

With this meaning, the object represents information given in response to someone else’s request through a form, exam or similar, and is not a secret (unauthorised supply of secret information is a meaning of GIVE AWAY – see #10 below). Indirect objects are rare:

(c) The form has a space for giving one’s name.

INFORM would be unlikely in such sentences because it requires mention of not just information but also its recipient: INFORM someone OF something (see 123. Prepositional Verbs Containing a Noun). Mentioning the recipient is often undesirable because it is obvious, or even embarrassing.

Other typical objects of this use of GIVE include an account (of…), an answer, details (of…), information (about…), an outline (of…), and further common specifics of these like age, address and time of arrival. Where a preposition is indicated, the whole combination borders on a prepositional verb containing a noun.

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3. “Supply (Unrequested Information)”

With this meaning, the need for information is felt by the giver rather than the receiver:

(d) Good textbooks give plentiful examples.

There is obviously not a great difference here from the use with requested information, and indeed some of the possible objects are the same.

Other likely objects include an account, a definition, a description, an excuse, an explanation, notice, proof and a reason. With the truth, the normal verb is TELL, but in legal contexts one often hears give the (whole) truth, perhaps because of its role there as evidence.

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4. “Cause to Experience or Display”

Common experience objects represent an emotion or sensation, e.g. a feeling, a fright, a headache, an idea, the impression, pleasure, a shock, a surprise and a thrill:

(e) Dark clouds give (MANY) a feeling of oppression.

Objects of the display meaning typically include an adjective, e.g. a sad appearance, a red colour (see 278. Colours, #1).

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5. “Input” or “Apply”

Here, the objects tend to be resources or energy used to solve a problem or perform a task. Indirect objects are common, sometimes necessary:

(f) The meeting gave excessive attention TO THE ISSUE.

With attention, alternatives to GIVE are DEVOTE and PAY (for more on PAY, see 132. Tricky Word Contrasts 4, #3). Other possible objects are effort, emphasis, a push, respect, thought and time. Two common fixed phrases are give one’s all (for…) and give one’s life (for…).

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6. “Attribute”

An object of this meaning tends to indicate the subject’s opinion about something. An indirect object is usually necessary:

(g) We give great importance TO CUSTOMERS’ VIEWS.

Other common objects include centrality, meaning, significance, status and weight.

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7. “Endow”

Endowed features tend to be long-lasting, even permanent. Common ones often said to be given include desirable attributes (beauty, intelligence, strength etc.), talents (creativity, wisdom) and benefits (education, upbringing), as well as names (see 206. Ways of Conveying a Name under “Other Verbs”).

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8. “Already Established”

This meaning always involves the passive form given, usually without an indirect object. However, full passives with BE, as in the following examples, seem rare:

(g) The value of g was given.

(h) It is given that g equals 32.

The more frequent use of given without BE could be adjective-like (the given value) or the start of an adverb-like phrase, along with a noun or omissible that…:

(i) Given the value of g (or …that g = 32), ….

The use with that is so frequent that the two words together are often classified as a “complex” conjunction (see 230. Multi-Word Conjunctions, #1).

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OTHER GRAMMATICAL POSSIBILITIES

There are various other ways in which GIVE can combine with other words.

9. With Nouns Derived from Verbs

English has numerous nouns that are spelled like a verb and resemble it in meaning. For example, discovery is made from the verb DISCOVER and means “discovering” or “thing discovered”; and existence is made from EXIST and means “existing” or “life” (see 249. Action Noun Endings).

One use of such nouns is as a substitute for their related verb in order to avoid or add particular words (see 39. “Decide” or “Make a Decision”?). They normally need a partner “dummy” verb, typically a small, common one like DO, HAVE, MAKE or TAKE. GIVE is a major verb of this kind (see 173. “Do Research” or “Make Research”?).

A problem here is that choosing the right dummy verb for a noun can be difficult. The meanings of the dummy verbs can help, but not always. Perhaps the main meaning that GIVE has with action nouns is “supply” (#2 and #3 above). Indeed, some of the nouns listed above for this meaning are action nouns (answer, definition, explanation, outline, proof).

However, the same meaning must sometimes be expressed with a different verb (e.g. make a proposal and present an analysis), and GIVE sometimes does not have it (in give an examination it means “carry out” rather than “supply”, in give a shout “produce” and in give a command “issue”). Moreover, PROVIDE is often a more formal alternative where GIVE meaning “supply” is possible.

Other action nouns that commonly accompany the “supply” meaning of GIVE include an assessment, a description, an illustration, permission, a presentation a response and a review. Many are common in essay questions (see 94. Essay Instruction Words). In addition, there are some nouns that can accompany either GIVE (suggesting “supply”) or another verb (suggesting “create” or “construct”). For example, one can give/make a list or argument, give/reach a conclusion and give/form an opinion (for more examples, see 173. “Do Research or “Make Research”?).

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10. With no Object

GIVE can be used without a following object noun in two main ways. In one, the meaning is “donate something of value (usually money) to a needy cause”. Although there is no object, one is generally implied:

(j) If you would like to give, place your contribution in the envelope provided.

It would be easy here to add an object like some money after give without changing the meaning or making the sentence ungrammatical. The probable reason why the object has become droppable is that explicit mention of money is often considered embarrassing. For more about verbs with an implied object, see 8. Object-Dropping Errors.

In the other object-less use, GIVE means “move slightly under pressure”. For example, one might say that a heavy object gave when force was applied to it. The movement can be good, suggesting tolerance of stress, or bad, suggesting a possibility of collapse. This is a true “intransitive” use, with no implied object.

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11. In Multi-Word Verbs

Multi-word verbs are close combinations of a verb with at least a preposition (forming “prepositional” verbs such as DEPEND ON and COPE WITH), or a preposition-like adverb (forming “phrasal” verbs like TURN ON and BREAK OUT – see 139. Phrasal Verbs). Prepositional verbs always need a noun-like object, while phrasal verbs only sometimes do. Both types often have a more formal one-word equivalent (see 108. Formal and Informal Words).

The prepositional verb GIVE ONTO (= connect to…, allowing access) is a rare two-word possibility:

(k) The door gave onto a small alleyway at the back.

Three-word prepositional verbs have a noun or adverb before the preposition. Common GIVE ones with a noun are GIVE WAY TO… (= allow…to pass first) and GIVE ATTENTION TO… (see 123. Prepositional Verbs Containing a Noun. Examples with an adverb are GIVE UP ON, GIVE … OVER TO (= dedicate…to…) and GIVE IN TO.

Phrasal verbs with no object include GIVE IN (= yield) and GIVE UP (= stop trying). Object-requiring combinations involve BACK (= return…to its source), OUT (= distribute…), UP (= sacrifice or discontinue), OFF (= exude) and AWAY (= “illicitly reveal”, when the object is secret information, or “freely allow strangers to have”):

(l) If surplus goods cannot be sold, they can be given away.

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12. In other Fixed Phrases

The following are common:

give and take (= contributing and receiving)
give or take (= approximately)
give … a go (experimentally try …)
give … a miss (choose not to do …)
give way (collapse or allow someone to go before you)

Give and take can be used as both a noun and a verb phrase (see 209. Fixed Phrases with “and”, #1). Give or take is adverb-like.

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13. Related Words

There is no action noun corresponding to GIVE: the related noun a gift means either a present or a talent (cf. #7 above). Another noun (uncountable give) means “ability to move slightly” (cf. #10 above). There is also the noun a given, meaning “established information” – clearly based on #8 above.

The two meanings of GIVE AWAY are both reflected in the noun a giveaway (= “obvious clue to a secret” or “free gift”). Joining the two words of a phrasal verb into one in this manner is a common way of making a related noun (see 26. One Word or Two?).

A verb very like GIVE is GIFT (+ indirect object + object), meaning “unintentionally enable … to have something valuable”. There are also the adjectives, gifted (= “talented”) and given to…-ing (= “in the habit of…-ing”).