103. Representing a Later Statement with “it”

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A starting “it” can stand for a later statement containing “that”, a “to” verb, or “-ing”

HOW “it” CAN REPRESENT A FOLLOWING STATEMENT

When it starts a sentence, it could just be representing an earlier noun (see 28. Pronoun Errors), but sometimes, like starting what and there, it will instead warn of something still to come (see 145. Highlighting with “What” Sentences and 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences). The warning is of a later statement adapted to perform like a noun. We understand as a result that this statement is the “real” subject of the sentence, and it is just its substitute. Here are some examples (later statements underlined):

(a) It is important to observe any changes.

(b) It is always rewarding visiting museums.

(c) It is not surprising that antibiotics are becoming ineffective.

As these show, the verbs in the statements represented by it sometimes need to (to observe), sometimes -ing (visiting), and sometimes a conjunction use of that (that … are becoming – see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that“). Some other conjunctions are occasionally necessary instead of that, such as question words like whether or where (see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #8) or as if (191. Exotic Grammar Structures 3, #2) or as though.

We know that the later statements are the “real” subjects of the sentences because putting them at the start instead of it would not change the basic meaning – even though the grammar, especially with the infinitive (To observe … is important), would often sound unusual (see 100. What is a Grammar Error?).

Also notable above is the presence just after it of is and an adjective. These are not the only possibilities, but are used above because they are simple and common in professional writing. Numerous other verbs can follow it (e.g. It makes sense to…), and if the verb is one that, like BE, needs a “complement”, the complement can be a noun as well as an adjective, e.g. it seems a shame that… (see 318. “It is” + Noun and Another Verb).

This post addresses two questions about using it as shown above: when to do it, and which form to give the verb in the represented statement. A further question – how to make it sentences the object of another verb – is considered in 190. Special Uses of “it” (#2).

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PLACING A STATEMENT AT THE END OF AN “it” SENTENCE

There is a simple basic guideline for using it in the described way: look to see if the subject of your sentence would otherwise include a verb with to or -ing or that. The reason for putting such subjects at the end is the principle of what grammarians call “end weight”: a preference for giving the most wordy information last (see 222. Information Orders in Texts, #3). Verb-based statements adapted for noun positions are very typically long. The reason for starting with it is the custom of starting English sentences with the subject of the verb (see 307. Word Order Variations).

An apparently different guideline sometimes given is the need to avoid unwanted verb subjects like I or we in formal writing. Indeed I have mentioned it myself (see 46. How to Avoid “I”, “We” and “You” and 107. The Language of Opinions). However, this reason for using it is not really so different from that given above. Consider the following:

(d) You will see that nothing remains.

The easiest way to avoid you here is by starting It will be seen that…. However, this use of it is still primarily explicable as a means of avoiding a verbal statement at the start of the sentence (that nothing remains) rather than of avoiding you. What enables you to be avoided is the verb change from active (see) to passive (be seen). It is a by-product of this change – the need to move the object of will see into the subject position – that creates the problem of a verbal statement at the start. Using it then solves this word-order problem, just as it does in sentences (a)-(c).

Yet despite all this, sometimes adapted statements are not placed at the end of a sentence. Example (b), for instance, could quite easily begin Visiting museums…. What, then, could be a reason for this alternative? I would suggest first of all that it should usually be considered only when the adapted verb has -ing or that since, as stated above, verbs with to rarely seem natural at the start of a sentence (though see 119. BE Before a “to” Verb, #5). With -ing or that, a more important determinant of sentence position than an idea’s length may be its degree of familiarity to the reader.

Familiar ideas – particularly recently-mentioned ones – are suggested elsewhere within this blog to go best at the beginning of sentences (see 37. Subordination: Grammar for Good Repetition and 156. Mentioning What the Reader Knows Already). English has various grammar structures that facilitate such positioning, most notably the passive voice of verbs (through which writers can reorder subjects and objects). Placing an -ing verb at the start of a sentence instead of at the end after an introductory it could well be another such structure.

Thus, if in (b) visiting museums is familiar information (the focus of the sentence being on rewarding), then these words ought to come first instead of it. However, if visiting museums is the focus of the sentence then this fact combined with the length factor makes the end of an it sentence strongly suitable.

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THE FORM OF VERBS REPRESENTED BY AN EARLIER “it”

1.  Verbs with “that”

It is quite common for the verb at the end of an it sentence to be introduced by that. The need for that depends partly on the kind of wording immediately after the starting it and partly on the kind of later statement that it represents.

Since the wording after it most often involves an adjective, it is fruitful to examine the adjective types that either require or allow that. It should be noted that these are not necessarily the same adjective types that require or allow that in order to be made into an adjective phrase, as in X is happy that…: after it the that statement is noun-like, with the sentence role of delayed subject, while without a starting it the that statement is adverb-like – combined more closely with the adjective (see 203. Expanding an Adjective with Words after it).

That seems to be the only possibility when it is… precedes a truth-commenting adjective (or noun) like arguable, certain, clear, (in)correct (= false), definite, a fact, false, hard to disagree, (un)likely, obvious, (im)probable, or true (for more examples, see 152. Agreeing and Disagreeing in Formal Contexts and 224. Asserting the Truth of what you Say). An example is:

(e) It is TRUE (THE TRUTH) that social benefits can end poverty.

Note that expressions of doubt rather than falsehood, such as debatable, doubtful, not clear, uncertain and questionable, are more likely to have whether than that.

Another group of that-requiring expressions is various (but not all) adjectives made by adding -able to a verb of saying or thinking, including discernible, foreseeable, notable, observable, predictable, tenable, unbelievable and understandable. One exception is advisable, which often allows to instead (see 187. Advising and Recommending).

After many other adjectives introduced by it is… a need for that depends on the kind of statement being introduced. Compare:

(c) It is not surprising that antibiotics are becoming ineffective.

(g) It is surprising seeing so much flu in summer.

In (c), are becoming has the visible subject antibiotics, but in (g) seeing has no visible subject. Visible subjects are what make that necessary after surprising. But what makes visible subjects necessary? In general, it is when the meaning is not I or you or people. The subject of are becoming is obviously none of these; whereas the unspoken subject of seeing is I, the speaker of the sentence.

Here is a sentence without that which has the invisible subject people:

(h) Is it acceptable to buy alcohol in supermarkets?

If alcohol is made the subject of a second verb here (…alcohol is on sale in supermarkets?), that becomes necessary.

Adjectives that, like surprising and acceptable, are only sometimes followed by that include acceptable, advisable, amusing, annoying, appropriate, awful, convenient, critical (= vital), crucial, delightful, depressing, desirable, essential, funny, heartening, hurtful, important, impressive, irritating, necessary, normal, painful, permissible, pleasing, (im)possible, rare, reasonable, recommended, regrettable, rewarding, saddening, satisfying, shocking, strange, surprising, terrible, typical, unheard of, (un)usual, urgent, useful and vital. Many of these, it is clear, indicate emotion-arousing, frequency or importance.

For details of possible, recommended and important used with that and to, see 181. Expressing Possibility, 187. Advising and Recommending, and 199. Importance and Unimportance.

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2. Verbs with “to” or “-ing”

In sentence (g) above, (it is) surprising… is followed by the -ing verb seeing, whereas in (h) acceptable is followed by the to verb to buy. Actually, both of these adjectives can be followed by either to… or -ing. The choice depends on how the action is viewed (what grammarians call “aspect”): to… presents actions as brief, while -ing presents them as extended – the same contrast that is possible after some adjectives outside it sentences (see 203. Expanding an Adjective with Words after), and after some verbs (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, #2).

Many of the adjectives listed above as allowing a choice about that also allow a choice between to and -ing. Those that do not – mainly indicating frequency or importance – are underlined. They usually allow only to after them as an alternative to that.

In addition, there are a few adjectives that allow the to…/-ing choice but rarely that. Common ones are difficult (= hard to do), easy, enjoyable, useless and the preposition phrase worth it. If a subsequent verb needs a visible subject, a for…to… structure is more likely than that… (It is useless for children to…). For more on worth it, see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #1.

There are also a few adjectives that allow to but not -ing after them (with or without a preceding for...), and rarely that. Examples are allowed, common, compulsory and typical (= common).

102. Adjectives with no Noun 2: Thing-Naming

Some adjectives are usable without a noun to indicate something specific

THE USE OF ENGLISH ADJECTIVES WITHOUT A PARTNER NOUN

A major characteristic of English adjectives is their association with nouns (see 283. Lesser-Known Facts about Adjectives). Sometimes, however, an English adjective can be used without an accompanying noun. A previous post (6. Adjectives with no Noun 1) shows how this is mostly done to name a general group of people who possess the characteristic expressed by the adjective, as in the poor (= poor people), the elderly and the educated.

In this post I wish to examine another way of using adjectives without an accompanying noun. Again, we usually find the in front, but this time the adjective describes a single thing rather than a general group of people, like this:

(a) It is sometimes necessary to consider the unthinkable.

The unmentioned noun here is something like “idea” or “action”. Such a use is not a possibility with many adjectives, but it is important to know about nonetheless, not least because it may prevent the adjectives involved from being confused with the many adjectives that cannot be used in the same way. The involvement of the is one of various unusual uses of this word that can be read about within these pages (see 235. Special Uses of “the”).

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SITUATIONS WHERE ENGLISH CAN NAME SOMETHING WITH JUST AN ADJECTIVE

Some languages other than English are much more able to use a nounless adjective to refer to a single person or thing. In French, for example, one can say “the responsible” where English would have to say the person responsible. In Spanish there is a special form of “the” that can be used with nounless adjectives, so that one could say, for example, “the strange” where English would have to say the strange thing. Speakers of languages that allow such things are probably the most likely to use English adjectives incorrectly without a noun.

There are various correct ways of using a nounless adjective in English to refer to an individual thing.

1. Particular Kinds of Comparative and Superlative Adjective

Superlative adjectives nearly always need the (see 82. Common Errors in Making Comparisons, #9). Sometimes there is an accompanying noun (e.g. the earliest records) and sometimes there is not (see 305. Wording next to Superlatives, #1). For there to be no noun, the superlative needs to be in a typical sentence position of nouns (subject, object, complement or after a preposition), and the absent noun should be either obvious or discoverable from the surrounding words, as in these examples:

(b) The options were surveyed and the most suitable was selected.

(c) The fastest of all the times was recorded.

In both cases, the lone superlative adjective is the subject of a verb. The understood nouns are of course option and time, the former indicated by the earlier options, the latter by the subsequent times. For more about dropping words in English when their meaning is obvious, see 36. Words Left Out to Avoid Repetition.

Comparative adjectives can be used alone after the in the same way. In (b), for example, the most suitable (suggesting at least two less suitable alternatives) could be replaced by the more suitable (suggesting only one). Adjectives that are not in the comparative or superlative forms, however, cannot drop their noun: they would have to either repeat it or use the pronoun (a/the) one – a suitable one in (b) (see 263. Uses of “One” and “Ones”).

A few comparative and superlative adjectives can also be used with a dropped noun that is not discoverable from the surrounding words. They tend to be in fixed idiomatic phrases. Examples are for the better/best, at best, at its -est, at worst, suffer the worst, know the worst, hear the latest, do one’s best/ worst, try one’s utmost/ hardest.

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2. Base-Form Adjectives in Fixed Phrases

English has a good number of fixed phrases, most of them idiomatic, that contain a lone base-form adjective. Quite often they begin with a preposition, breaking the normal rule that prepositions, like adjectives, must be accompanied by a noun (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #1). Some include the, some do not. Examples are by far, far worse, for good, for sure, in full, in general, of late, in the black, in the clear, in the red, on the alert for and out of the ordinary (for more, see 85. Preposition Phrases & Corresponding Adverbs and 164. Fixed Preposition Phrases).

Other fixed phrases with a lone adjective include to state the obvious (see the end of 183. Statements between Commas), to do the necessary (see the end of 213. Special Uses of “Do” 2), from the sublime to the ridiculous and the long and the short of it.

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3. Occasional Individual Adjectives

A small, seemingly rather random group of adjectives can be used without a noun to express a general idea. The understood noun may be “thing”, “idea”, “information”, action, “event”, “situation”, “person” or “place”. Examples are the above, The Almighty (= God), the familiar, the impossible, the like, the unthinkable, the unknown, the unknowable, the unexpected, the unseen, the unusual and the wild. The frequency of negative examples here may be significant.

Note, though, that when a more specific or precise meaning has to be expressed, words like this will need a following noun, as in this example:

(d) Most of the presentation was conventional enough; the unexpected part was the conclusion.

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PRACTICE EXERCISES: FINDING NOUNS TO ACCOMPANY OR REPLACE LONE ADJECTIVES

When another language uses a lone adjective, English is unlikely to be able to do the same. What, then, should one do in English instead? There seem to be three possible solutions: adding an abstract noun like part or point; replacing the adjective with a noun; or using what is/was.

In the first case, the added noun is usually one of a particular small group, the selection depending each time on the adjective being added to (in other words, the nouns and adjectives form collocations – see 16. Ways of Distinguishing Similar Words, #5). In informal speech, typical nouns are thing or bit (e.g. the ridiculous thing, the difficult bit). Thing is sometimes used in professional writing too (see 260. Formal Written Uses of “Thing”).

Readers might like to try and predict the more formal nouns usable after the following adjectives:

1. The logical … is that travelling to the past is impossible.

2. The logical … is to experiment with different alternatives.

3. The high … was the tour of the island.

4. The important … is that nobody should be blamed.

5. The easy … of driving is increasing one’s speed.

6. The obvious … is to make a complaint.

7. Winning a trophy was the defining … for the team.

8. The … responsible for the action should come forward.

9. The most enjoyable … of university life is the people you meet.

10. The next … after marriage is having children.

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Answers

1 = conclusion/ view;  2 = course/ action/ strategy;  3 = point;  4 = point/ thing;  5 = part/ side;  6 = course/ step/ solution;  7 = moment;  8 = person;  9 = aspect/ part;  10 = step/ stage.

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Other typical nouns are:

With logical: (re)action, approach, decision, strategy, measure, consequence, outcome, answer, response.

With difficult: part, moment, aspect, area, feature, decision, question.

With interesting: part, feature, point, question, observation, thing.

With appropriate: (re)action, behaviour, measure, response.

With inevitable: moment, occurrence, consequence, result, outcome.

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In some sentences, a suitable added noun is not easy to think of, and completely replacing the adjective with a noun becomes a better strategy. For example, a very suitable noun instead of high in sentence 3 above is highlight. What nouns might replace the following (answers below)?

1. The urgent … is to stay safe

2. The surprising … was that nobody was killed.

3. The necessary … is to isolate new cases.

4. The difficult … in language learning is to maintain motivation.

5. The good … of eggs is their protein.

6. The certain … is that drug-taking brings only misery.

7. 10. If you cannot be a doctor, an alternative … is train as an engineer.

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Possible Answers

1 = The priority;  2 = The surprise;  3 = The need;  4 = The challenge;  5 = The benefit;  6 = The certainty;  7 = an alternative (alternative is both an adjective and a noun).

Finally, what is or what was can be placed before an adjective. Most of the above sentences allow this (the exceptions are 3, 7, 8 in the first exercise). However, doing so is probably not advisable if one of the other two strategies is possible since it is more wordy (see 265. Grammar Tools for Better Writing, #3).