313. Adverbs Linked Closely to a Noun

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Most adverbs cannot associate with a noun, but a few can

ADVERB ROLES IN ENGLISH SENTENCES

Adverbs are usually said to modify, or refine, a particular type of information in a sentence. In contrast to adjectives, which typically refine noun or pronoun information, adverbs are mostly associated with a verb or an adjective or another adverb or an entire statement. Elsewhere within this blog, it is suggested that adverbs can also modify the meaning of a preposition (see 262. Adverbs that Describe a Preposition).

In view of all this, a reasonable generalization would seem to be that adverbs can add information about practically anything in a sentence except nouns or their equivalents. Yet, as the above title indicates, that is not the case. In this post I wish to examine how adverbs can say something about a noun. Not every adverb has this capability, but that is not really surprising when the same thing could be said about every other adverb capability (see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs, #2).

The total number of adverbs that can add information about a noun is not large, but it is perhaps greater than one would expect (and greater than implied by the rare illustrations that I have found in grammar books). My specific objectives here are to identify as many of the possibilities as possible, and to illustrate them copiously.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF NOUN-FOCUSSED ADVERBS

Noun-focussed adverbs tend, not surprisingly, to be located just before their noun. The problem is that adverbs before a noun are not always closely associated with it. Consider this:

(a) Obviously, water is not an infinite resource.

The adverb obviously here is saying something about the message of the entire sentence rather than just about water. This is recognizable from the fact that it can occupy a grammatical position elsewhere in the sentence, such as just before the verb is, without a change of meaning. The comma after obviously is also a clue, since sentence-starting adverbs with a following comma tend in general to be sentence-related (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs).

Here is an example of a starting adverb that does link only with the noun after it:

(b) Quite a mess was left behind.

The close association of quite here with a mess is easier to see if the entire phrase is placed in the object position after a suitable verb:

(c) Workers left quite a mess behind.

If quite was being used here in the ordinary adverb way, its position between the verb and its object a mess would probably not be correct because ordinary adverbs are in general unlikely to be correct there (see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs, #3). However, quite fits naturally into this position.

Contrast the use of quite in (c) with that of the manner adverb deliberately. That would have to go at the start or end of the sentence, or just before the verb left.

Slightly trickier to judge are adverbs before a noun in the “complement” position after a verb like BE. In the following example, could clearly be considered noun-focussed?

(d) The scale of the project was clearly a challenge.

There is no punctuation rule that could give assistance here, and meaning does not help: clearly appears to be as plausibly modifying the verb was as the complement a challenge.

A way forward in this case, perhaps, is to see how the sentence reads with the adverb placed before rather than after BE: …clearly was a challenge above. The change is obviously not a problem with clearly, but with quite it seems more of one:

(e) ?The scale of the project quite was a challenge.

Another problematic sentence type is where a starting adverb + noun are followed by a comma:

(f) Clearly a challenge, the scale of the project had to be reduced.

However, I take such sentence starts to be just a modified form of the complement usage shown in (d). This is because being can be added before the adverb without affecting the grammaticality or meaning of the sentence.

Sometimes, an adverb precedes a noun within a preposition phrase, e.g. in especially the sea. I discount this usage too, the reason being that the adverb can usually be repositioned before the preposition without a meaning change, thus suggesting that the modification is of the whole phrase rather than just the noun within it.

Finally, various adverbs can precede a noun placed directly after another noun within an “apposition” construction (see 77. Apposition, #1):

(g) The next planet out from the sun, obviously Mars, may provide evidence of alien life.

I would not take obviously here to be focussed on just the noun Mars. Again, it seems to be a variant of the complement usage since which could comfortably go before it, with is placed either before or after.

However, the adverb namely seems different – less natural-sounding with which is – and will be included. Other adverbs that seem like it are especially notably, particularly and specifically.

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MEANINGS OF NOUN-FOCUSSED ADVERBS

1. Degree Adverbs

Degree adverbs typically modify adjectives or other adverbs (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much). The main ones that seem able to modify a noun (usually a countable one with a) are quite and rather. Quite with nouns seems the more widely usable. Its meaning varies less than with adjectives and adverbs (see 231. Confusions of Similar Structures 3, #2), being more typically “completely” than “moderately”. Rather, by contrast, does mean “moderately”, but it tends to be restricted to negative-sounding nouns like a fool, or a mess in sentence (c) above.

Some grammar books also mention back-referring such (= “at the recognised high level”), as in:

(h) Nobody could accept such a (radical) suggestion.

An adverb (as opposed to adjective) nature of such in this use is perhaps hinted at by the frequent implication of a following adjective that, like radical, conveys the main description of the noun.

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2. Inclusion Adverbs

Two fundamental inclusion meanings are “excluding all others” – most typically expressed by only (see 251. The Grammar of “Only”) – and “surprisingly included” – usually shown by even. Both words easily meet the sentence-position requirements. They may begin like this:

(i) Only/Even children may use this facility.

The adverbs are associated here with the noun children, not with the later use this facility: the sentence is not naming the single or extra thing that children may do. The noun association can be present even with the adverbs after rather than before their noun.

If children were in the object position (e.g. after We accept…), the placement of only/even before it would not sound strange (though placement after it would again be possible too).

Of the various synonyms of only, just and solely seem usable like it, whereas exclusively and purely do not. To me, these latter sound unlikely at the start of a sentence and unusual just before an object. They seem to fit much better before prepositions and conjunctions (exclusively in summer, purely when the sun shines).

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3. Highlighters

Especially, notably and particularly say that their noun deserves more attention than others in the same class (see 54. Sentence Lists 1: incidental). Their use with nouns seems mostly to be in apposition constructions, where there is another noun just before:

(j) Some parts of the solar system, especially Mars, may provide evidence of alien life.

Usage outside of apposition constructions, for example with a sentence-starting noun like children in (i), seems possible with especially and particularly, but rare and usually with the noun before rather than after them (Children especially…). A possible reason for the rarity may be a danger of a double meaning – difficulty deciding whether the adverb modifies the noun or the whole sentence. One way to more clearly show linkage with a starting noun is to use in particular (without commas) after it instead.

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4. Precision Adverbs

Various adverbs are usable before a quantity noun to show how exact it is, as in exactly a kilogram, approximately a litre and easily a megabyte. Other relevant adverbs include almost, at least, nearly, perhaps, practically, precisely, probably, roughly and virtually (see 95. Making Statements More Uncertain 1, #1).

However, all the adverbs in this category may be less definitely noun modifiers than the kinds in preceding sections. It is arguable that they actually modify not the noun after them but the article a(n) before it. They are not usable if the same nouns are made plural, with a(n) absent. Plural nouns after them usually need a number in between (e.g. almost 3 kg.). Given that a(n) is sometimes an alternative to the number one (see 263. Uses of “One” and “Ones”, #2), it is difficult not to conclude that this meaning is what the adverbs are modifying.

The standard negative adverb not, which similarly modifies nouns only when they have a(n) (e.g. Not a word was spoken), may be discounted for the same reasons (see 310. Aspects of Negation, #1).

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5. Name Indicators

The adverbs namely and specifically can introduce a name-informing noun placed along with them between two commas or equivalent as the second half of an apposition construction:

(k) One era of the dinosaurs, namely / specifically the Cretaceous, was the time of Tyrannosaurus.

Namely is always usable in such sentences, whereas specifically is only possible when the noun before it is indefinite, usually with a(n) or one (see the end of 206. Ways of Conveying a Name).

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6. Superficiality Adverbs

Apparently, ostensibly, seemingly and superficially placed before a pronoun with any- (anybody, anyone, anything) or every- or no- can be understood as modifying it:

(l)  The villagers had apparently nothing to do.

This usage seems possible with the pronoun used as either a subject or an object or an object of a preposition.

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7. Negatives

The adverbs barely, hardly and scarcely seem as questionably able as not to modify a noun (see #4 above). However, they do seem more able to modify pronouns with any-:

(m) Hardly anyone disputes the need for action.

305. Wording next to Superlatives

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There is a variety of typical wording that can accompany superlative adjectives and adverbs

THE COMPLEXITY OF SUPERLATIVES

The superlative form of adjectives and adverbs (with -est or most) is not difficult to recognise, form or understand, but the choice of wording next to it can be more of a problem because it is constrained by a surprising variety of grammatical rules. It is these rules that I wish to focus on here. I expect readers will know some of them already, but that few will know them all.

Before examining these rules, however, it may be helpful to summarise a few basics about superlatives. With superlative adjectives, the choice between -est and most is of course determined by syllable numbers, the former being preferred with single-syllable adjectives (e.g. clearest), the latter with most multi-syllable ones (e.g. most accurate).

For forming superlative adverbs, -est is again mainly possible with shorter forms. However, where these end with -ly, -est is often not simply added onto the end as with adjectives, but takes the place of -ly. For example, the -est form of clearly is clearest, not *clearliest. The -liest ending is only possible with -ly adverbs that could also be adjectives, such as early (for a list, see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs, #6). This rule means, of course, that superlative adjectives and adverbs with -est are spelled the same, leaving only adjectives and adverbs with most looking visibly different from each other.

Sometimes, though, short -ly adverbs like clearly are used with most instead of -est, probably because -est is considered rather informal. The only -est forms that do not allow this choice seem to be irregular ones like best, worst and furthest.

Superlative adjectives are usually located near a noun – before or after them – that they can be understood as “describing” (see 283. Lesser-Known Features of Adjectives). Superlative adverbs, on the other hand, add information about a verb, adjective, other adverb or entire sentence. When both have the same spelling, a sentence position where these two uses can be especially difficult to distinguish is directly after a verb. Adjectives there are probably describing the verb’s subject; adverbs the verb. Consider this:

(a) Air coolers are best in dry climates.

The superlative best is here an adjective describing air coolers. This is because the verb (are) is the kind that must be followed by a “complement” – a noun or adjective giving information about its subject (see 220. Features of Complements, #2). Since there is no other noun or adjective after are that could be understood as its complement, best must be that word, and it must be an adjective because complements are not usually adverbs.

Best becomes an adverb in (a), however, if are is replaced by the verb work. This is not a complement-taking verb, so no wording after it can describe its subject. With best now lacking a noun to describe, it ceases to be an adjective and becomes an adverb instead. Thus, when a superlative after a verb has identically-spelled adjective and adverb forms, it is the grammatical properties of the verb that are the main clue to which of these forms is present.

Meaning-wise, superlatives, like comparatives, express what I have elsewhere called a “relative” difference – more or less of something rather than whether it is present or absent (see 216. Indicating Differences). Unlike with comparatives, though, the difference that they express relates to at least two other things, not just one (see 312. Grammar Command Test 3, #a).

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THE PARTNER WORDING OF SUPERLATIVES

1. An Implicit Following Noun

Superlative adjectives differ from base-form ones in being usable without a nearby mention of the noun they are describing:

(c) When there are numerous tasks to undertake, start with the easiest.

Here, easiest has no noun in close proximity that it could be linked with in the normal manner of adjectives. It is linked to the implicit idea of “task” by the wider context. By contrast, if the base form easy was used instead, it would need to be followed by one(s), a pronoun referring back to tasks: ending with just *the easy would be grammatically incorrect. This pronoun-dropping property of superlatives is also possessed by comparative forms (see 102. Adjectives with no Noun 2).

A further use of superlative adjectives with an implicit following noun, this time shared by base-form nouns, is when the noun refers to the general idea of “people”. Just as the rich can mean “rich people” and the young can mean “young people” (see 6. Adjectives with No Noun 1), so the richest and the youngest can mean “people (in general) who are the richest/ youngest”.

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2. A Preceding “the”

Superlative adjectives and adverbs mostly require the before them, but sometimes they can or must drop it. One place where the is sometimes dropped is before adjectives in the complement position:

(d) The police are (the) busiest in the summer.

Including the before the superlative complement busiest here is likely to make a comparison between the subject of the sentence (the police) and an implied similar group (e.g. other workers). Less probably, the comparison will be between the subject and itself in different situations. Dropping the, by contrast, only makes this latter kind of comparison. Replacing the with at their can do the same (see 311. Exotic Grammar Structures 9, #3).

One other place where the is sometimes dropped is before a superlative adverb saying something about a verb (i.e. not describing an adjective or other adverb, as in the most clearly visible). Dropping the makes no meaning difference:

(e) Motor accidents occur (the) most often at night.

For further details about the before superlatives, see 82. Common Errors in Making Comparisons, #9.

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3. A Preceding “a(n)”

Sometimes, the before a superlative adjective needs to be replaced by a(n). A common marketing term, for example, is a best buy (= “merchandise providing best value for money”).

Using a shows that other “best buys” exist. The superlative form is possible because each “best buy” is in a different category from the others, and is being elevated only above the other members of its category, rather than all other “best buys”. For example, calling a TV a best buy would say it was the best TV to buy, without saying how it compared with other products.

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4. A following “of”

Sometimes, a noun after a superlative adjective is separated from it by of meaning “among”:

(f) The most interesting of the anecdotes was (or were) provided by children.

A noun directly after a superlative adjective can be singular or plural in the normal way. With of, however, this noun is always plural, regardless of whether a singular or a plural idea is being expressed. This is because the superlative is not actually describing the plural noun after of, but is rather describing an earlier singular or plural version of it that has been left unmentioned to avoid repetition. In sentence (f), for example, the underlined part means “the most interesting anecdote (or anecdotes) of the anecdotes” (see 160. Uses of “of”, #5).

Of the is added after a superlative to show a very strong expectation that the subsequent noun represents an already-familiar idea. Of alone, by contrast, indicates a weak expectation, while a normal superlative, with nothing added, indicates a medium-level expectation (see 247. Exotic Grammar Structures 6, #3).

If a preposition after a superlative does not mean “among”, it cannot usually be of. Consider this:

(g) The Vatican is the smallest state … Europe.

Of is not possible in the space here because the idea of “among” clearly does not fit. The correct choice before a location name like Europe is in. Yet the idea of “among” is still implicit in the sentence: it could be made explicit by changing state into of the states.

A common task in English language tests is to paraphrase a sentence containing a superlative + of with one containing the corresponding comparative. Consider, for example, the following:

(h) Mercury is the nearest of the planets to the sun.

How might this be paraphrased by starting Mercury is nearer to the sun…? The key is to include the word other after than: …than any/all of the other planets.

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5. A Preceding “one of the”

As indicated above, superlative adjectives can describe plural nouns as well as singular ones. For example, the most interesting chapters of a book would refer to two or more chapters out of a larger total in the book. The chapters may or may not all be equally interesting.

One of the before a superlative adjective indicates both that the adjective is describing multiple noun ideas and that accompanying information is about just one of them. If the noun is mentioned after the superlative adjective, it must be plural. In the book example, one of the most interesting (chapters) would associate accompanying information with one of the chapters covered by the superlative (see 263. Uses of “One” and “Ones”, #4).

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6. A Preceding or Following Strength Expression

Strength expressions indicate how strongly or weakly an adjective or adverb meaning applies. For example, very, as in very fast, indicates high strength of base-form meanings. English has numerous strength words and phrases (mostly adverbial), but very few that are equally usable with base, comparative and superlative forms. Very links only with base forms (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much).

Superlative adjectives and adverbs can be accompanied by a surprising variety of strength expressions, but their relative positions are not always the same: some strength expressions precede the superlative, some go after, and some allow a choice. Common possibilities are:

USUALLY BEFORE SUPERLATIVES

just about, fractionally, marginally, much, very much, easily, far and away, quite, the very

USUALLY AFTER SUPERLATIVES

available, conceivable, ever, of all, imaginable, possible, so far, yet

BEFORE OR AFTER

up to a point, by far

Note the difference between the positions of by far and far and away (see 292. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar 2, #6), plus the inclusion of strength-showing adjectives alongside adverbs in the after-superlative list (see 269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #3).

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7. A Following Infinitive

Most superlative adjectives can make an adjective phrase by combining with a to (infinitive) verb:

(i) The cold virus is the likeliest to be contracted.

Often, the superlative’s base form is equally able to link with an infinitive (see 83. Adjectives before a “to” Verb). In (h), for example, likely would be equally grammatical before the indicated infinitive. With some superlatives, though, such replacement is not grammatically possible. This would be the case in (h), for example, if likeliest was replaced by most frequent.

It often seems to be the case that non-replaceable superlatives like the most frequent allow a following infinitive to be paraphrased with a relative clause (with who, which, that etc.) whereas replaceable ones do not (see 269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #4).

285. Complexities of Question Words

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Grammatical aspects of English question words are surprisingly numerous

THE CHALLENGE OF QUESTION WORDS

Examining question words opens a window on a surprisingly wide variety of English grammar and vocabulary. Some of this will be familiar to experienced students of English. Most will know, for example, the difference between who and whom, and between what and which. Other aspects of question words, however, may not be so familiar – some, indeed, may even qualify as “exotic”. It is, of course, these wider aspects of question words that are the focus here.

Questions themselves can also be linked with a wide variety of grammar and vocabulary. Readers wishing to read about these in this blog are referred to the posts 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing,  105. Questions with a “to” Verb,  219. Wording next to Indirect Questions and 274. Questions with a Hidden Meaning.

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COMPLEXITIES

1. Word Class Variation

Despite the obvious similarities between question words, they actually do not all belong to the same word class (“part of speech”). Compare the use of how much in the following indirect questions:

(a) … how much gold costs today.

(b) … how much money gold is worth today.

(c) … how much gold varies in price.

In (a), how much is a pronoun. It represents not the noun gold after it but the unwritten noun money. It is the object of the verb costs, gold being the subject. In (b), how much is an adjective, giving information about the directly-following noun idea money. In (c), how much is an adverb giving information about the verb varies. It is not its object because VARY with this meaning allows no object.

The other question words can be placed into grammatical classes in a similar way. The main ones have the following possibilities:

Word Classes of the Main Question Words

Other combinations with how are usually adverbs if their second word is one (e.g. how quickly, how often) and adjectives otherwise (e.g. how quick, how old) .

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2. Equivalence to Nouns

The question word in indirect questions (not direct ones) can very often be paraphrased with a noun, for example reason for why, way for how and time for when. The main question word with no noun equivalent is whether (see 185. Noun Synonyms of Question Words):

(d) A major issue was the number of (= how many) attempts to allow.

In formal writing, there are some places where a noun is common. One is headings separating subdivisions of extended writing. For example, instead of How Languages are Learned a heading might say Language Learning Processes (see “Grammatical Form” in 178. How to Write a Heading).

Essay questions often replace a question word with a noun too. Unlike headings, though, essay questions of this kind usually need an extra verb in front in order to make their sentence grammatical. Thus, a question beginning Why…? might become Outline the reasons…, and one beginning How useful…? might become Discuss the usefulness… (see 94. Essay Instruction Words). The extra verbs, it will be seen, are typically in the base “imperative” form (see 128. Imperative Verbs in Formal Writing, #1).

Some essay questions have just an imperative verb and no noun equivalent of the question word. For example, What X…? might become Identify the X that… and How similar are…? might become Compare and Contrast… .

One other place where a noun is preferable to a question word is at the start of a sentence, where the indirect question is usually the subject of a verb (see 219. Wording next to Indirect Questions, #1). In the following example, what alternative form might be given to the question How much training is required?

(e) …is a source of dispute.

A possible beginning here is the amount/ quantity of training (that is) required.

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3. Non-Question Usage

Words that can act as a question word do not always do so. Most obviously, when and where can alternatively be conjunctions (see 64. Double Conjunctions). In addition, most question words can make relative clauses. Consider this indirect question:

(f) Historians wondered where alphabetic writing first emerged.

The underlined words here are recognisable as an indirect question because they begin with a word that can be a question word (where), they closely follow a word or phrase indicating a type of asking (wondered), and they have a noun role in the sentence (object of wondered) (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing).

Now consider (f) with wondered replaced by know the place. The word before where (place) would not then suggest asking (nor explaining nor knowing, the other possible question indicators), and the where… part would have an adjective-like role rather than a noun-like one, describing place. These are characteristics of the familiar type of relative clauses beginning with who, which or that, and they indeed indicate that the where clause above is similarly relative. Further confirmation is provided by the fact that where after location is replaceable by at which.

It is not just where that can be “relative” rather than question-asking (“interrogative”). All of the question words in the above table except how, how much and whether are the same (see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses). How usually becomes in which (e.g. the way in which, instead of *the way how). Whether does have a non-question use, but as a conjunction combining with or rather than as relative adverb (see 99. Meanings of “Whether…or…”).

Bear in mind, though, that a noun instead of a verb before a possible question word does not always produce a relative clause: an indirect question will remain if the noun is one of asking, like question, or explaining, like clarification, or knowing, like uncertainty (see 287. Speech and Thought Nouns). The indirect question will also keep its noun-like status: instead of being an adjective phrase describing the noun before it, it will be making a two-noun “apposition” structure with it (see 253. Descriptive Wording after Nouns 2, #3).

One other non-question use of indirect question forms is after the prepositions according to and depending on (see sentence [l] in 162. Writing about Classifications).

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4. Usage with “-ever”

Who, what, which, how much, how, when and where can combine with the suffix -ever or, more emphatically, -soever (how much becoming how[so]ever much). Whom and whose can only combine with -soever. Why links with the separate word ever.

An -ever word is always possible in questions, and often possible in other kinds of sentence too. In questions, it usually suggests its user cannot think of any possible answer (see 272. Uses of “Ever”, #2).

Why ever can only make questions (direct or indirect). However and however much can make questions or adverb-like additions to a longer sentence:

(g) However they tried, they could not succeed.

However here is an adverb meaning either “all” (saying all ways of trying failed), or “unidentified” (saying an unidentified way of trying failed).

Whenever and wherever can similarly make both questions and adverb statements, but in the latter they are conjunctions rather than adverbs.

Whatever, whoever, whomsoever, whosesoever and whichever can make questions, adverb statements or relative clauses:

(h) Whatever happens next?

(i) Whatever happens next, nothing will stop the process.

(j) Whatever happens next will be recorded.

The use of whatever in (i) is very like that of however in (g): its statement is adverb-like because it is not the subject, object or complement of the main verb (will stop), and the meanings of either “all” or “unidentified” are understandable. In addition, though, the -ever part of (i) carries the idea of unimportance, indicating that no next event will have any impact. This idea seems very common in all adverbial -ever statements (see 199. Importance and Unimportance, #8).

In (j), by contrast, the whatever part is the subject of the main verb will be recorded. The meaning of whatever is “anything which” (see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses, #4). Once again, there is a further meaning of either “all” or “unidentified”.

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5. Usage with Infinitives

All of the question words can ask a question with just an infinitive verb after them:

(k) The website explains what to do.

After why, however, an infinitive cannot have to (see 148. Infinitive verbs without “to”, #5).

Both direct and indirect infinitive questions are possible after every question word except whether, a maker of only indirect questions. For a detailed explanation of when to compose and use infinitive questions, see 105. Questions with a “to” Verb.

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6. Usage with Prepositions

Combinations like the following are probably common in most languages:

(k) By when should the parcel arrive?

By when here means not “at what time?” (the meaning of when alone) but “up to what time?”. All of the basic English question words can accompany a preposition in this way except how, whether, who and why. The equivalent of who after prepositions is whom.

An alternative, less formal preposition location in English is at the end (When…by?), e.g.:

(l) Who does this belong to?

(m) What did they do that with?

(n) Where do you come from?

(o) Which shelf is it next to?

In this use, whom is very often replaced by who (Who…to?). Although why cannot be used as shown, one of its meanings – seeking a purpose rather than a cause – is often expressed with What…for? (even though *For what…? cannot replace a starting Why…?).

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7. “Who’s?” versus “Whose?”

Both of these expressions can be either relative or interrogative. For the relative use, see 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #5. In the interrogative use, who’s is an abbreviation of who is – its apostrophe is not a possessive one. Its inclusion of the verb is means it can make a question without a neighbouring verb, combining just with a noun, adjective or adverb, e.g. Who’s next? (= “Which person is next?”).

Whose, by contrast, means “Which person’s?”. It must accompany or imply a separate verb. It can be an adjective describing a noun, e.g. Whose question is next? (= “which person’s question is next?”), or stand alone as a pronoun, e.g. Whose is next?.

The confusability of these two expressions mirrors that of it’s versus its (see 138. Test your Command of Grammar 1, #5).

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8. “How” + Adjective / Adverb

How is usable both with and without a following adjective or adverb. With one (e.g. How rich…? How easily…?), it means “how much” (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much), though the word much cannot be added in between (*How much rich…?). By itself, how enquires about the “manner”, “means” or “instrument” of a verb’s action (see 73. Prepositions for Saying How).

Appreciating this distinction is important for understanding essay questions. Consider this:

(p) How were Napoleon’s reforms effective?

Because no adjective or adverb follows how, it means “in what way?” The effectiveness of Napoleon’s reforms is accepted and just needs to be explained. However, if the question begins How effective…, how means “how much?”, indicating uncertain effectiveness that must be debated (see 94. Essay Instruction Words).

272. Uses of “Ever”

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“Ever” contributes to words and characteristic word combinations, with variable meanings

THE VALUE OF CONSIDERING “EVER”

Ever is like only: most often used like an ordinary English adverb, but with enough less well-known possibilities to make it what I call “multi-use” (see 3. Multi-Use Words). As with my post on only (251. The Grammar of “Only”), the purpose of concentrating on ever here is to offer both a comprehensive description of its usage and some reminders of various grammar points made elsewhere in this blog.

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USES

1. As an Ordinary Time Adverb

Ever is used with adjectives and sometimes verbs to mean “without ending”. With adjectives, this meaning is a type of duration (saying how long). Like most adjective-focussed adverbs, ever typically goes first. The combinations can usually occupy either of the main adjective positions: before a noun (e.g. an ever fruitful enterprise) and after one with a link verb in between (…was ever grateful/ready). Some combinations are so common that they have ceased to be separate words. Ever-present usually has a hyphen; evergreen lacks even that.

Before comparative adjectives (ever better, ever more dangerous), ever perhaps expresses unending frequency (saying how often) rather than duration.

With verbs, ever mostly expresses unending frequency. When it does, the verb must represent a brief action rather than an extended one or a state (see 225. Simultaneous Occurrence), and be in either a “continuous” tense (BE -ing) or the participle form (especially -ing). Common verbs include ASK, COMPLAIN, DEMAND, SAY, SEEK, SUGGEST, THINK (= believe), TRY and WISH. A typical sentence might be:

(a) Small children are ever trying to be noticed.

The position here of ever, just before the -ing part of the verb, is the only possible one.

Participles with ever follow it, separated by a hyphen, e.g. ever-increasing prices, ever-criticised behaviour (see 223. Uses of Hyphens, #4D). In the word everlasting, the absence of a hyphen perhaps reflects combination with an adjective rather than participle (see 245. Adjectives with a Participle Ending).

With both adjectives and verbs, frequency-indicating ever is replaceable by a frequency-indicating always (see 227. Time Adverbs). With verbs, ever perhaps sounds slightly less positive than always, suggesting the repetitions are causing irritation.

The other main use of ever with verbs usually requires them to be negative and/or in a question, and allows tenses other than continuous ones, e.g.did not ever go…, will they ever see…?  Ever then means “at any time” (see 310. Aspects of Negation, #7), and not ever is very similar to never, though much less common outside questions.

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2. In Questions Asked with a Question Word

Ever can go directly after any question word except whether, whom and whose, forming (except after why) a single word with it (see 285. Complexities of Question Words, #4). It can also follow any question word more distantly, before the main part of the verb. Both uses suggest its user cannot imagine any possible answer to the question:

(b) Whatever did the money buy?

(c) What did the money ever buy?

The difference here is that (b) is a genuine information-seeking question, while (c) is just an expression of scepticism implying the answer nothing .

The tenses in the following examples make the question about something happening either as it is asked or so recently that evidence of it is still visible. As with (b), information is being sought:

(d) Whatever are you doing?

(e) Wherever have they been?

In addition, though, ever suggests surprise or irritation. Moreover, the visibility of the event means ever cannot logically be in the later, existence-questioning position.

An alternative to ever directly after a question word is on earth (see 274. Questions with a Hidden Meaning, #7). It similarly suggests that the speaker is mystified, surprised or irritated, but perhaps more emphatically.

Ever questions like (c), (d) and (e) can be indirect, with ever in the same positions. However, indirect forms of questions like (b) seem likely not to include ever at all.

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3. After Comparatives and Superlatives

The comparative and superlative forms of both adjectives and adverbs can be expanded into a phrase by means of a following ever statement, with ever meaning “at any time”. After comparatives, the statement is introduced by than, after superlatives that. The verb in the statement rarely has a negative or question form:

(f) The moon astronauts travelled further from the earth than humans had ever done before.

(g) The moon is the furthest (point) that humans have ever reached beyond the earth.

In (f), further is a comparative adverb linked by than to the following ever statement; in (g), furthest is a superlative adjective (describing the visible or implied noun point) linked by that to the following ever statement.

In addition to adjectives and adverbs in the superlative form, there are a few base-form ones with a superlative-like meaning – first and last for example – that can similarly have a subsequent that…ever statement. Moreover, base-form adjectives and adverbs between as…as… (e.g. as far as…) can also precede an ever statement, the second as acting like than/that after comparatives and superlatives.

Abbreviated forms of than, that and as statements like the above are often possible. In one, there is just ever by itself after either a comparative + than (e.g. better than ever), or a superlative without that (e.g. the furthest ever), or a base adjective between as…as (e.g. as far as ever). The use directly after a superlative is replaceable by other “intensifying” words, such as yet, so far and imaginable (see 269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #3). Another type of abbreviation after a superlative is ever + passive (-ed) participle: …the furthest (point) ever reached in (g).

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4. After Conditional “if”

This is another context where ever meaning “at any time” can accompany a verb that is neither negative nor in a question. It is usable in the same two sentence positions that are possible after question words:

(h) If … aliens were … encountered, the excitement would be huge.

(i) If … a comet was … seen, a disaster was expected.

Sentence (h) is a standard use of if, with the event mentioned after it implied to be unlikely. In (i), on the other hand, certain occurrence is conveyed, rather as it is with when, but with a suggestion of greater rarity (see 118. Problems with Conditional “if”, #6).

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5. With Certain Adverbs and Adverb Phrases

Ever can precede after, more or since in their independent adverb role. Ever after means “always after then” (typically with a verb in a past or future tense). Ever more means either “always after then” (with a past tense verb and for in front) or “always after now” (with a future tense verb). Ever since means “always between then and now” (with a verb in the present perfect tense). Ever is not replaceable in any of these with always:

(j) Gold was found there once and has been sought ever since.

Note that after and since without ever can imply either “always” or “once”, so that adding ever is a way of ensuring that the “always” meaning is understood.

After and since can additionally be prepositions or conjunctions after ever, necessitating further words after them. For example, since in (j) would become a preposition before a noun expression like that time, and a conjunction before a subject + verb, e.g. that occurred (see 61. “Since” versus “Because”).

One other adverb commonly found after ever is so combined with either an adjective (ever so easy) or adverb (ever so easily). This is so meaning “very”, and ever just makes that meaning even stronger (like very, very…). It is a rather informal use: in formal contexts both words would probably be replaced by extremely or similar (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much, #5).

Also notable is only ever, which means “always with no alternative” (see 251. The Grammar of “Only”).

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6. As a Suffix (“-ever”)

As mentioned above, ever is often fused onto the end of a word that by itself introduces a question (whoever, whenever, however etc.).

Words formed like this have both the questioning uses described above (#2) and a non-questioning one. In the latter, the verb after the -ever word cannot be the only one in its sentence in the way did…buy is in (b) (a “direct” question). Instead, it typically belongs to adverb-like combinations in longer sentences:

(k) HOWEVER the question IS POSED, the answer is always the same.

(l) WHATEVER anyone ADVISES, problems can be overcome.

The -ever parts here are adverbial because they are neither the subject of the main verb nor the complement or object. The main verb in (k) (is) has the subject the answer and the complement the same; the main verb in (l) (can be overcome) has the subject problems and allows no object. 

For more about however in sentences like (k), see 256. Unusual Meanings of Familiar Words, #6. For information about dropping BE after whatever in sentences like (l), see the end of 192. When BE can be Omitted).

Of course, -ever words in indirect questions similarly need more than one verb in their sentence. However, they still differ from most non-questioning -ever words in introducing noun-like instead of adverb-like sentence parts (see 185. Noun Synonyms of Question Words).

Nevertheless, there are also a few non-questioning -ever uses – involving whoever, whatever or whichever – that introduce a noun-like sentence part:

(m) Whatever was written is lost.

The underlined part here is the subject of is lost. What still rules out such cases as indirect questions is absence of a question-indicating expression like ask, explain or know (see 219. Wording next to Indirect Questions).

Non-questioning -ever has three alternative meanings. The most common is “unimportance”: that the -ever part is naming something that does not affect what is mentioned in the main part of the sentence (see 199. Importance and Unimportance, #8). For example, sentence (k) says the wording of the question does not affect the answer. This meaning allows -so- to be inserted into the -ever word (e.g. whatsoever, howsoever) to give more emphasis.

The other two meanings seem more likely when the -ever part has a noun rather than adverbial role, as in sentence (m). One of these meanings is “all” or “everything” – the start of (m) could mean “everything written”. The other possible meaning is “unknown”: (m) could be indicating ignorance of what exact single thing was written.

One other use of whatever is directly after a negative (pro)noun to emphasize the negation, rather like at all, e.g. nothing whatever, no reason whatever.

262. Adverbs that Describe a Preposition

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Various adverbs can add information to a preposition phrase immediately after them

GENERAL ADVERB USAGE

The possibility of an adverb adding to a preposition meaning is hardly ever highlighted in English grammar explanations. Adverbs are typically linked with verbs, adjectives / adverbs (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much), or entire sentences (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs). Noun links are sometimes mentioned too (see 313. Adverbs Linked Closely to a Noun). Yet adverbs linked to a preposition are not only possible but common and varied. An example mentioned elsewhere in this blog is well with prepositions like above and beyond, as in well above 100 degrees (see 256. Unusual Meanings of Familiar Words, #2).

This adverb usage is actually not so surprising, given the grammatical role of prepositions. Although they differ from adjectives and adverbs, their standard need for a noun-like partner normally results in phrases with either an adjective or an adverb sentence role (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #2). Thus, in terms of preposition phrases rather than individual prepositions, adverb use with the preposition is just a variant of the familiar use with simple adjectives and adverbs. This similarity is reflected in the positioning of preposition-linked adverbs: in front just like adverbs before an ordinary adjective or adverb (e.g. easily observable).

This post lists and classifies adverbs that can expand a preposition’s meaning in English. The source is my own observations, there seeming to be very little on the topic in grammar reference books.

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FEATURES OF ADVERB USE WITH A PREPOSITION

Two key observations are that some preposition uses cannot follow the kind of preceding adverb described above, and not every adverb before a preposition is combined with it in the relevant way.

The first of these observations, note, is about “preposition use”, not “prepositions”.  In other words, it is how and where a preposition is used, rather than what it is, that determines its combinability with an adverb. In general, most prepositions seem able to combine with an adverb in the right circumstances.

There are three main preposition uses in English: “natural”, expressing the fundamental meaning of the preposition, as in to the south; collocational, dependent on a neighbouring word, as in pleased with progress; and grammatical, dependent on a particular grammatical structure, as in shown by experience (see 111. Words with a Typical Preposition). It is the first of these uses, the “natural” one, that seems most able to be linked with an adverb in the relevant way.

One adverb use before a preposition that does not make the relevant kind of combination can be illustrated as follows:

(a) Micro-plastics are accumulating rapidly in the oceans.

Here, the adverb rapidly gives information about the preceding verb accumulating rather than the following preposition in. This is perhaps because the movement suggested by rapidly contradicts the static meaning of in. Without such a contradiction, a double meaning might arise (see 301. Structures with a Double Meaning 5, #1).

Another type of use that does not qualify can be illustrated as follows:

(b) Ships long ago would sail close to the shore.

Here, the preposition to is chosen not for its natural meaning of motion approaching somewhere, but as the collocational partner of the adverb close, enabling that word’s meaning to be made more precise by a following noun. In other words, to is adding information about close rather than close adding information about to. The meaning is that ships long ago went along the shore rather than towards it.

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ADVERBS USABLE WITH A PREPOSITION

Adverbs that can combine with a preposition are quite limited in number. Moreover, most individual ones combine with only some prepositions: very few – apart from almost and practically – are usable whatever the preposition. The following are the main adverbs found, along with their typical prepositions.

ALL…
across, above, along, around, by (+-self), outside, over, round, under

ALMOST…
Very widely usable

CLEAN…
through

CLOSE…
after, alongside, behind, beside, by, next to

CLOSELY…
behind, with

COMPLETELY…
Same as for FULLY

DEEP…
below, in, inside, into, under, within

DIRECTLY…
Same as for FAR, plus after, alongside, opposite.

EXACTLY…
above, along, alongside, around, at, behind, below, beside, by, in front of, in line with, like, next to, on, opposite, over, to, towards, under, worth

FAR…
above, across, ahead of, around, away from, before, behind, below, beyond, from, in front of, inside, into, off, out of, outside, over, past, round, to, towards, under, within

FULLY…
Same as for FAR, plus alongside, beside, like, on, with, worth.

HIGH…
above, on, over, to

IMMEDIATELY
Same as DIRECTLY

JUST…
Same as for FAR, plus alongside, at, beside, by, like, next to, on, opposite, since, until, up to, worth

LONG
…after, before, beyond, past, since

MOSTLY/MAINLY…
Same as for FULLY

MUCH… (often after not)
above, across, ahead of, before, behind, below, beyond, in front of, in line with, like, off, out of, over, past, to, towards, under, within

NARROWLY…
ahead of, behind, past, to

PARTLY…
Same as for FULLY

PRACTICALLY…
Very widely usable

QUITE…
like, within

RATHER…
like

RIGHT…
Same as for FAR, plus alongside, at, beside, by, next to, on, opposite, through, until, up to

ROUGHLY…
alongside, at, beside, by, in, like, near, on, to, towards, until, up to, worth

SLIGHTLY…
Same as for FAR, perhaps excepting around. One other is like

SOON…
after, before

SPOT…
on

STRAIGHT…
Same as for FAR

VERY…
(un)like

WAY…
Same as for FAR, excepting around, from

WELL…
Same as for FAR, excepting from. One other is worth

WHOLLY…
Same as for FULLY

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OBSERVATIONS

Because of the variety of the adverbs and the prepositions allowed by each, guidelines on making the right choices seem desirable in order to reduce the need to memorise. There seem to be some clues in the meanings of the adverbs and some in those of the prepositions.

1. Adverb Meanings

An obvious general meaning expressed by many of the adverbs is a greater or lesser degree of their preposition’s meaning, similar to the degrees of meaning that adverbs can also show with adjectives and other adverbs. With some prepositions a degree of distance can be shown, with others a degree of exactness. Adverbs showing the former range from close, just, narrowly and slightly for small distances, through well and much for medium ones, to deep, far, high, long and way for great ones.

Close, a straightforward opposite of far, allows surprisingly fewer prepositions. As well as alongside and by, it allows, among the numerous far prepositions that it might logically be expected to allow, just behind and beside. Note that close with any of these prepositions instead of its “typical” preposition to is a true preposition-describing adverb, not a verb-describing one like in sentence (b).

Straight usually implies a high degree of directness of movement and consequently tends to accompany only prepositions that imply movement. In the list above, although it is linked with the same prepositions as far, the link is actually more with their movement meanings than their position ones. Especially common preposition partners include from, into, out of and to(wards).

Long – closely associated with the idea of time – only accompanies certain prepositions implying a time distance: after, before, beyond, past and since (but not from, up to or until). Soon is similar, but restricted to just after and before.

Adverbs representing a degree of exactness include all, clean, completely, exactly, fully, just, mostly, partly, right, roughly, spot, very and wholly. They tend, to a greater or lesser extent, to be used with positional rather than directional prepositions. For example, all over… means “everywhere in/on” (a meaning also expressible with the less common in/on all [of]…).

Three adverbs in the above lists – spot, clean and way – are unusual in that their only adverb use is with a following preposition. This probably makes their partner prepositions harder to predict. Spot on and clean through are actually idioms: expressing a meaning that is not easily discoverable from the normal meanings of spot and clean and not allowing preposition substitution. They mean “completely” or “exactly”.

Quite before like means “fairly” rather than “wholly”. It is unusual in not being likely with this meaning before any other preposition (something also true of rather and very). Before within (e.g. quite within their rights), it means “wholly”.

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2. Preposition Meanings

The most fundamental meaning types expressed by prepositions described by an adverb are location and movement. The location ones, indeed, are an important feature of locational description (see 295. Options in Saying Where, #3). Many prepositions can express either meaning, thus allowing a wide range of adverbs.

For example, to, which most people would associate with movement, can express position before compass nouns (the north, the south etc.: see 151. Ways of Using Compass Words) and before the left and the right. Thus, far to the right expresses a movement after dived but a position after was situated. Other adverbs that can precede to include completely, directly, exactly, fully, high, just, much, narrowly, partly, right, roughly, slightly, straight, way, well and wholly.

Prepositions indicating a higher or lower location or direction of movement – above, below, beneath, over, under – allow not just ordinary high-degree adverbs like far but also ones reflecting their location: high with above and over, deep with below, beneath and under. The possibility of deep with in, inside, into and within also reflects location: the shared idea of “buried”.

As mentioned above, prepositions that express location much more than movement tend to link with exactness adverbs. They include alongside, beside, by, in, next to, on and opposite. For more on opposite, see 261. Words with Complicated Grammar 3, #4.

Worth implies not position or movement but quantity, another concept that fits easily with degree and exactness adverbs. However, the actual ones that are usable are rather limited: exactly, fully, just, mostly, partly, roughly, well and wholly. For an extensive analysis of worth, see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #1.

Like also expresses a rather unusual preposition meaning, making its typical adverbs possibly harder to predict. The main ones are exactly, just, mainly, much, mostly, quite, rather, roughly, slightly and very (see 53. “As”, “Like” and “Such As”). The underlined ones can also precede unlike.

With has different meanings that each allow different adverbs. When it means “accompanying” or “supporting”, it allows fully, partly or wholly, but when it means “collaborating” it allows closely instead. Note that when it means “using” it allows no adverb at all because that is a “grammatical” use (see 73. Prepositions for Saying How).

Finally, a notable missing preposition from the list above is despite. I am unable to think of a single adverb apart from almost that it might be associated with. One reason might be that it cannot imply exactness or a degree of meaning in the way that most prepositions can. It may also be a purely “grammatical” preposition.

259. Multi-Word Connectors

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Many fixed phrases can show a meaning link between two sentences

MULTI-WORD CONNECTORS IN ENGLISH

Connectors are adverb-like expressions that show how the meaning of their sentence is related to that of one normally placed before (see 18. Relations between Sentences). Common examples are therefore, however and otherwise. A typical use is:

(a) Manufacturers must invest in new equipment. Otherwise, they will lose custom.

Here, otherwise says its sentence is naming the outcome of not acting in the way described in the sentence before (invest in new equipment). In other words, it signals a kind of “opposite consequence”.

Connector meanings are often able to be expressed by a conjunction instead – e.g. or in (a) – but in one sentence rather than two (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors). The whole-sentence focus of connectors makes them especially useful for clarifying overall paragraph structure (see 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists,  167. Ways of Arguing 1 and 210. Process Descriptions).

Connectors have to be distinguished from other kinds of sentence-focussed adverb. In the following, technically starts its sentence in the same way as otherwise above, but it does not show a link with an external statement:

(b) Technically, “the” is not an adjective.

Other adverbs usable like this this include surprisingly and naturally. For an extensive list and classification, see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs.

Confusingly, there are also some expressions that sometimes act as a connector and sometimes do not. Generally is a connector when accompanying a generalisation based on preceding specific instances, but not when merely signalling that the statement after it is a general one. Sometimes can have the connector meaning of “some of these (just-mentioned) times” but also the non-connector one of “some of all possible times”.

Most grammarians and English coursebook writers include among their connector examples some multi-word expressions like for example, that is to say and as a result. This is not such a revolutionary thing to do, since multi-word prepositions and conjunctions are also recognised (see 221. Multi-Word Prepositions and 230. Multi-Word Conjunctions). A key requirement for recognising a group of words as a multi-word version of any of these word types is the typicality of their combination: it must be sufficient for the expression as a whole to be considered a standard word partnership, or “collocation”.

A slight problem with such a criterion is its subjectivity, since there are some connector-like word combinations about which people’s judgements might vary. For example, (a) above would say the same thing if otherwise was replaced by if this does not happen, but would that still be a connector? It cannot be rejected because it comprises a conjunction (if) with a subject and verb, since that is also a feature of some combinations that most analysts do accept as connectors, like that is to say (that). On the other hand, it cannot be accepted as a connector on the grounds that it has the same effect, since English has numerous non-adverbial (and therefore non-connector) expressions that do that (see 112. Synonyms of Connectors).

Despite such problems, multi-word connectors still appear to be as surprisingly numerous as multi-word prepositions and conjunctions, and hence deserving of a place in this blog. My aim here is to illustrate, explain and analyse the wide variety of phrases that are always or sometimes connectors, especially those that seem likely to appear in formal writing.

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SURVEY OF POSSIBILITIES

Multi-word connectors do not all have the same grammatical form. The following list is organised around the major differences. Highlighted items indicate a link to a Guinlist post containing usage information.

1. Preposition Phrases

Any relevant combination beginning with a preposition falls into this group. Considering that preposition phrases are a major alternative to adverbs in general in English (see 85. Preposition Phrases and Corresponding Adverbs), it is not surprising that they are a sizeable category of multi-word connectors. Examples are:

above all, after all, after a while, after some time, after that, among these, as a conclusion, as a matter of fact, as a/(the) result, as such, at any rate, at last, at least, at once, at that moment/ point, at that time, at the same time, at this, before this, besides this, by contrast, by the way, despite that, during this process, during this time/ period, for all that, for example, for instance, for one thing, for this reason, in addition, in any case, in any event, in a similar vein, in contrast, in a similar way, in comparison, in conclusion, in consequence, in general, in other words, in particular, in reality, in short, in sum, in summary, in that case, in the end, in the event, in the first place, in the meantime, in the process, in the same way, in this respect, in time, in turn, in view of this, of course, on the contrary, on the one hand, on the other hand, on the plus side, on top of that, with that

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2. Verbs with a Joining Device

“Joining device” is my term for any linguistic option that allows a verb to exist in a sentence with another one. It includes conjunctions, relative pronouns, relative adverbs, question words, semi-colons, participle endings and the to form of verbs (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). In the following list, joining devices are underlined:

be that as it may, following (on from) this, this is because, that is to say (that), that is why, that said, to continue, to cut a long story short, to finish, to repeat, to resume, to start with, what is more

Borderline combinations of this kind perhaps include if this does not happen and the reason is that.

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3. Adverb-Based Phrases

Connectors in this category contain neither a preposition nor a verb but normally have an identifiable central noun or adverb:

all the while, all this time, even so, better (or worse) still, first and foremost, first of all, last but not least, last of all, later on, more accurately, more precisely, more specifically, most of all, then again, the whole time

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4. Other

all in all, all the same, if not, if so, that is

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OBSERVATIONS

It is obvious above that most multi-word connectors are preposition phrases. Within these, that is quite common after the preposition. In many cases, this is an alternative, the difference usually being one of historical or psychological “distance” (see 234. Adjective and Pronoun Uses of “that”).

The variety of prepositions usable with that/this raises the question of whether any preposition can form a connector with these words. I suspect that many prepositions can indeed make a connector-like link in this way, but many of the combinations would have to be ruled out as “proper” connectors because they are not common. For example, under that seems a very unlikely but still possible way of showing a meaning link between sentences. Combinations with like seem more connector-like, but perhaps should be considered borderline rather than definite connectors.

In the second category, infinitive verbs (with to) are as common, it will be seen, as that in the first. This is hardly surprising: just as this and that are the most natural means of representing a previous statement, so verbs are a natural means of naming a link with one, and the infinitive form is a very common way of fitting any kind of text-describing verb into a sentence (see the end of 183. Statements between Commas).

Another feature that infinitives share with that is the ability to make connector-like phrases that are quite novel and hence not very fixed, such as to elaborate, to say why and to give another example. Once again, the lack of fixedness of such phrases can rule them out as true connectors.

Note, finally, that some of the phrases above have a non-connector use – typically preposition-like – as well as their connector one. They include for example (illustrated in detail elsewhere in this blog in 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #4), in other words, in particular, more accurately and that is to say.

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NOTABLE MEANINGS

The overall number of multi-word connectors makes it impractical for all of their meanings and uses to be elaborated here. However, there are some that are not considered elsewhere in this blog but perhaps merit special attention. Two – as such and more so – have a use in some regional varieties of English that is not found in Standard English.

The non-standard use of as such is as an exact equivalent of therefore. In Standard English, as such only sometimes equates to therefore. Here is a sentence where both are possible:

(c) Reptiles cannot generate much body heat of their own. As such (or Therefore), they need regular exposure to the heat of the sun.

One way to check whether as such is possible is to see whether the sentence still sounds logical with as replaced by its synonym being. This is the case in (c), but would not be if the underlined words were changed to lose heat at night. Two conditions make both as and being possible. One is that the subject of the verb in the second sentence (they) should mean the same as the subject of the verb in the first (reptiles). The other is that the first sentence should describe a state rather than action.

The non-standard use of more so is as a connector meaning moreover. In Standard English, more so is not a connector at all, but a way to express the comparative meaning of an already-mentioned adjective or manner adverb without repetition. So refers to the adjective or adverb rather as pronouns refer to a preceding noun:

(d) The weather is hot all year but (is) more so in February.

(e) Farmers work hard all year but more so at harvest time.

In (d), so refers to the earlier adjective hot, thus making more so an adjective phrase meaning “hotter”. In (e), so repeats the meaning of the earlier adverb hard, thus making more so an adverb phrase meaning “harder”.

Another slightly tricky connector is on the other hand. Sometimes it follows a statement prefaced by on the one hand (with the before one) and sometimes it does not. The first use names two opposing features of a single person or thing, separated by a comma, semi-colon or full stop:

(f) On the one hand, everyone in the village is friendly; on the other (hand) they always carry a gun.

Such descriptions are usually objective, without implicit judgement. More significance can be given to the second half by removing the two linking expressions and placing a simple but in the middle (see 51. Making Concessions with “May”).

On the other hand by itself, however, has a wider contrastive use, indicating a simple difference between two separate people or things (see the end of 216. Indicating Differences). This use is often confused with that of on the contrary (see 20. Problem Connectors, #1).

251. The Grammar of “Only”

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“Only” has various adverb uses, and can also be an adjective or conjunction

THE MULTI-USE NATURE OF “ONLY”

Most experienced users of English would be very quick to say, if asked whether they were familiar with the basic word only, that they certainly were. If they were further asked to say what they knew about this word, they would surely give a good description of what it means and where in a sentence it is typically used. However, I am not so sure that the full range of grammatical possibilities would be easily described.

Only in fact occurs in quite a wide range of grammatical structures, and is consequently a good example of what I call a “multi-use” word (see 3. Multi-Use Words). The present post aims to highlight some of the more esoteric grammatical uses. This is a similar kind of approach to that taken in various other parts of this blog that make a detailed study of a small familiar word (for a list, click on the SPECIFIC WORDS tab above).

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FUNDAMENTAL MEANINGS

As a preliminary, a brief look at the main meanings of only may prove useful. The adjective meaning is “not accompanied by other instances or amounts”. For example, both the only explanation and the only two explanations mean no other explanations exist.

Common adjective synonyms are sole and lone. Like them, only cannot be alone after BE or similar (see 184. Adjectives with Limited Mobility, #3), but can combine there with the … one(s) (see 263. Uses of “One” and “Ones”, #6). One adjective that is not a synonym is unique. It combines the meaning of only with the idea of “unequalled” (see 284. Words with a Surprising Meaning, #13).

Sometimes adjectival only is necessitated by the choice of noun (i.e. it is “collocational” – see 16. Ways of Distinguishing Similar Words, #5). For example a child without siblings is usually an only child.

As an adverb only is again often found before a noun (see 313. Adverbs Linked Closely to a Noun, #2). It must precede any use of the, a(n) or similar. Thus it is an adverb in only the explanation. It carries the same meaning as the adjective, but also one of various other meanings, depending on the context. For example, only one week would variably suggest:

INSUFFICIENT: schooling time in a year

IMPRESSIVE: time taken to write a dissertation

UNIMPORTANT: time saved over ten years

These extra meanings make adverbial only useful in data interpretations (see 115. Surveying Numerical Data). Sometimes, though, there can be uncertainty about which meaning applies, so that a more precise synonym becomes advisable. For example, just is more suggestive of impressive achievement, while merely can more definitely indicate unimportance.

One other notable use of adverbial only is before adverbial expressions indicating time of occurrence. In past ones, such as only last month or only just, the time is implied to be surprisingly recent; in future ones, such as only tomorrow, later than desired. Only ever means “always without exception” (see 272. Uses of “Ever”).

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SPECIAL GRAMMATICAL USES

Probably the most familiar grammatical aspect of only, besides its adjective / adverb usability, is the multiplicity of sentence positions that the adverb use can occupy, with consequent potential for misunderstandings. I exclude it here because it is widely described elsewhere. Six other uses are as follows.

1. With a Conjunction

Adverbial only can precede some conjunctions to limit their meaning. For example, only when… means no other times are possible besides the one specified; only because… works similarly with reasons or causes; and only if… does the same with conditions (see “Open Conditions” in 179. Deeper Meanings of “if”).

It is mainly “subordinating” conjunctions that can follow only (i.e. not those that must go between two linked statements, like and, but and or – see 174. Eight Things to Know about Conjunctions, #3). The commonest possibilities express time (when, while, after, until, since), cause (because, since, seeing that), condition (if, provided that) or purpose (so that, in order to). Combination with although is unlikely.

When only follows a conjunction, it is usually combining with the next word rather than the conjunction. However, one exceptional case involves if (if only…) to express a wish for an unfulfilled past or present, or an unlikely future. The tense choices are the same as after wish that… (see 254. Tricky Word Contrasts 10, #6).

There is also a historical description use that perhaps expresses a less personal, more general regret (see 282. Features of History Writing, #12):

(a) If only the dangers of smoking had been known, much suffering would have been avoided.

For more on wishing, see 238. Using a Verb to Perform its Action, #6.

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2. Starting a Sentence

After a starting only, some or all of the accompanying verb often goes before its subject, like in direct questions (so-called “inversion”):

(b) Only children DO they allow inside.

(c) Only when vaccination is possible WILL the virus BE DEFEATED.

In (b), the “auxiliary” verb do precedes they, the subject of allow. In (c), will precedes the virus, the subject of will be defeated. The earlier verb is in (c) does not precede vaccination because it follows when, which postpones the influence of only (see 37. Subordination).

The main situation where no inversion follows a starting only is when the subject of its accompanying verb follows immediately:

(d) Only children can enter.

When only is not the first word, inversion is not normally allowed. A major exception, however, is in some sentences starting with not only…. This expression introduces information implied to be already familiar to the addressee, the main point of the sentence being in a later but (also) statement (see 64. Double Conjunctions):

(e) NOT ONLY will the virus be defeated, BUT the world’s economy will also recover.

Here, two different verbs are used (will be defeated, will recover), with different subjects (virus, economy). In such situations, not only needs to start the sentence and requires inversion.

The situation is slightly different when two different verbs have the same subject (one expressed with a pronoun):

(f) Not only will the virus be defeated but it will never reappear.

Again, with not only at the start, inversion is necessary. However, such sentences also allow not only to be later, ruling out inversion and making the pronoun optional: The virus will not only be…but (it) will….

A third possibility is two different subjects with the same verb:

(g) Not only the virus will be defeated but also economic instability.

Here, not only must start, but inversion is optional. The verb is usually mentioned only once, either between the two subjects or after them. For more about inversion outside questions, see 307. Word Order Variations, #3.

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3. Before “to”

Only can precede a to statement at the end of a sentence:

(h) Motorways speed up traffic movement, only to cause jams elsewhere.

In such sentences, the to statement expresses an unexpected and often undesirable consequence of what is said before it. The subject of the to verb will be the same as that of the earlier, main verb (here motorways), unless a different subject is mentioned in a for phrase after only.

For a fuller description of this use of only, see 247. Exotic Grammar Structures 6, #1.

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4. Indicating an Exception

Exceptions are members of a general class that contradict or fail to follow a rule or generalization about it. Their mention usually needs an accompanying statement of the rule or generalization, either in the same sentence or separately beforehand – rather as happens with examples (see 1. Simple Example-Giving) or lists (see 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists).

Only is useful for naming all (not some) of the exceptions to a generalization expressed in a preceding sentence:

(i) Few creatures survive extreme cold. Only certain micro-organisms have this ability.

As this suggests, the exception wording (underlined) is usually a noun phrase, with only directly before it. The rest of the sentence often just paraphrases the main part of the rule, but not always (see 215. Naming Exceptions, under “Other Options”).

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5. As a Conjunction

This is a rather informal use of only, uncommon in professional writing. Some books say it means but, but I think it is narrower. Compare:

(j) Cycling has numerous benefits, only there is a risk of accidents.

(k) Accommodation is cheap, only the location is isolated.

(l) Train travel would be easy, only the state will not subsidise it.

In all these, only is easily replaceable by but: both are “coordinating” conjunctions (located between two linked statements, unable to go before them as although can). The sole meaning difference seems to be that only is clearer that no other possibility exists. With but, this interpretation is possible but not inevitable.

In (j), the meaning is very similar to the exception-showing one described above: the words after only name a disadvantage outside a general advantageous trend. In (k), a single advantage (cheap) is compared with a single disadvantage (isolated), so a contrast rather than exception is being indicated. Sentence (l) mentions an unreal idea using would (easy train travel), then gives a reason for the unreality.

Although but can usually replace only, the reverse is not always the case. Only but, for example, is possible in the following, despite the similarity to (k):

(m) The storm was fierce but the ship survived.

A requirement for using only in sentences like (j) and (k) is perhaps that it should introduce something undesirable. The absence of such an idea in (m) seems to explain why but is necessary there. Only would sentences like (l) seem to allow mention of something desirable after only, as in the following rewording of (l):

(n) Train travel would be difficult, only the state is subsidising it.

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6. Before “too” + Adverb / Adjective

Only too is close in meaning to “very”. There are two uses. One combines the “very” meaning of too with the idea of “disastrous”:

(o) Addiction can develop only too easily.

Here, only too easily indicates ease that is so great as to be disastrous. Similarly, is only too true indicates disastrously definite truth.

This use of only too… can be paraphrased with all too… . It is unlikely to start a sentence. Only too… at the start of a sentence is likely to have a more standard, alternative-denying meaning of only:

(p) Only too late were the dangers understood.

Here, the denied alternatives are other times, such as “early”, “in time” and “late”.

The second use of only too… meaning “very” accompanies adjectives expressing a positive human state, such as happy:

(q) The villagers were only too happy to demonstrate their skills.

Other possible adjectives here include eager, glad, keen, pleased, ready and willing.

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7. In Predictions

Only can follow predictive will (or equivalent: see 147. Types of Future Meaning, #1) to predict occurrence of something unwanted instead of what is planned. A common usage is …will only make matters worse.

227. Time Adverbs

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English has numerous time adverbs, with varying grammatical properties

THE CHALLENGE OF TIME ADVERBS

Most people are familiar with common time adverbs like now, yesterday and soon. What is less appreciated, however, is that English has a surprisingly large number of time adverbs, some of which are very unlikely to be encountered at elementary or even intermediate level. Part of the reason for such variety is that, when we come to think seriously about what is meant by “time”, we quickly find that it can be understood in different ways, each of which possesses its own range of vocabulary.

In this post I wish to examine the different meanings of “expressing time” and to present as complete a list as I can of adverbs under each heading. In the process I hope to identify and explain the difference between words that are either very close in meaning or typically confused by advanced learners of English. I will also say something about grammatical usage, which with adverbs usually means sentence positions.

Excluded as adverbs here are adverb phrases, such as most of the time, after this or for good. Many of these are listed in 85. Preposition Phrases & Corresponding Adverbs, and there is also something useful in 169. “All”, “Each” and “Every”.

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TIME ADVERB CATEGORIES

The meaning category of an adverb is fairly easily discoverable by considering which question word it is associated with (see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs, #1). 

The most obvious time question word – answered by all three adverbs listed earlier – is when (= point in time). Less obvious are the time question words how often (= frequency, answered by adverbs like frequently) and how long (= duration, answered by adverbs like briefly). All of these question words are themselves time adverbs (see 285. Complexities of Question Words).

Within each group of time adverbs there are also some notable subdivisions.

Point-in-Time Adverbs

These adverbs can generally occupy either the start of a sentence or the middle (next to the verb) or the end. They may indicate a point relative to “now” or relative to another event or situation. They reinforce but cannot replace the meaning of verb tenses (see 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #1).

1. Points Relative to “Now”

These may be “now”, “before now” or “after now”. The corresponding adverbs include:

(I) NOW: currently, now, nowadays, presently, this… (week, month etc.), today.

Nowadays typically suggests a contrast with the past (see 157. Tricky Word Contrasts 5, #2), while presently can contrast with the future. Today often indicates the general present. Now is perhaps preferred for briefer or recently-established present situations.

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(II) BEFORE NOW: ago, already, before, formerly, historically, hitherto, just, last… (Monday, week, month etc.), last (= the last time), lately, once, previously, recently, then, this week (etc.), yesterday.

Underlining here indicates need or ability to accompany a verb in the present perfect tense (with HAVE) rather than the past simple.

Yesterday can refer just to the past in general. Once expresses either an unrepeated past occurrence or one of many (see 282. Features of History Writing, #7). Ago must follow a period noun (e.g. months ago).

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(III) AFTER NOW: henceforth, imminently, next, next… (week etc.), presently (British English), shortly, soon, this… (Monday, week etc.), tomorrow

Henceforth means “continuously from now”, while soon indicates a delayed future start. Tomorrow can mean the future in general.

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2. Points Relative to another Event / Situation

The subdivisions here are “then” (= that same past / future time), “before then” and “after then”. Many of the words are also classified as “connectors”, showing links between separate sentences and typically positioned near the start of their sentence (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors).

Common contexts are sequence descriptions (historical narrative, laboratory instructions, process descriptions, etc.) and introductions to written or spoken exposition (see 186. Language in Oral Presentations, #1).

Examples are:

(I) THEN: concurrently, meanwhile, simultaneously, then, throughout

A key differentiator of these is the relative durations of the two events / situations. For details, see 225. Simultaneous Occurrence.

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(II) BEFORE THEN: already, before, beforehand, early, earlier, first, formerly, initially, previously.

Beforehand suggests immediately before – otherwise before, earlier or previously are preferable. Whereas earlier means “previously”, early means “near the beginning”. For a difference between first and firstly, see 20. Problem Connectors, #8.

When referring to the past, beforehand, first and initially may accompany a verb in the past simple or past perfect tense:

(a) First a value was (or had been) entered. Then the program was run.

The past simple (was) places the event within the focus of the description, while the past perfect (had been) places it outside (see 171. Aspects of the Past Perfect Tense). The other adverbs in the list more typically require the past perfect.

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(III) AFTER THEN: after, afterwards, at once, eventually, finally, immediately, lastly, later, next, now, secondly (etc.), subsequently, then, thenceforth, thereafter, thereupon

Here, “etc.” after secondly represents the entire sequence of ordinal adverbs (thirdly, fourthly…).

Note the presence of now in the list . It could, for example, replace then in (a). Note also that subsequently is commoner in descriptions than instructions.

After is unusual in not normally acting as a connector (after that being preferred: see 234. Adjective & Pronoun Uses of “that”, #1). It is more typical outside sequence descriptions, often after a time period expression, e.g. many years after, or an event verb:

(b) Compared with what came after, that summer was a happy one.

At once, like beforehand, suggests immediacy. Later suggests a time interval, eventually an extended preceding event/ situation. Eventually, lastly and finally can all show a final event, but eventually can also show earlier ones (see 210. Process Descriptions, #2).
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Frequency Adverbs

The fundamental idea here is repetition. One subgroup, illustrated by daily, indicates the length of time between repetitions; another, illustrated by twice, indicates number of repetitions.

Frequency adverbs can occupy all three sentence positions, but perhaps go less commonly at the start, where the focus is more on them than other information:

(c) Occasionally, people question the need for insurance.
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1. Adverbs like Daily

annually, biennially, hourly, intermittently, regularly, weekly, yearly

Two of these do not indicate an exact time interval: intermittently says only that it varies in length, regularly that it does not.
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2. Adverbs like Twice

again, a little, little, always, commonly, consecutively, constantly, continually, ever, (in)frequently, generally, invariably, mostly, never, normally, occasionally, often, once, rarely, repeatedly, seldom, sometimes, successively, twice, typically, unfailingly, usually

Most of these, it is clear, are vague about the number of occurrences – only once, twice and again are not. This makes them useful for indicating exceptions and avoiding sweeping statements (see 95. Avoiding Untruths 1 and the end of 215. Naming Exceptions).

Nonetheless, most can be grouped in terms of the number of occurrences. Between 0% (never) and 100% (always, ever, invariably, unfailingly), approximate percentage groups are 25% (a little, little, occasionally, rarely, seldom), 50% (sometimes), 70% (commonly, frequently, often) and 90% (generally, normally, typically, usually). Less easily quantified are constantly, continually and repeatedly.

Ever expresses frequency only with brief-action verbs – usually in continuous tenses (…is ever complaining) or participle form (see 272. Uses of “Ever”).

Unfailingly often indicates desirable regularity – it has a “positive connotation” (see 16. Ways of Distinguishing Similar Words, #2). By contrast, repeatedly often indicates undesirability.

Little, rarely and seldom suggest an unhelpfully small frequency while a little and occasionally suggest small but useful frequency (see 310. Aspects of Negation).

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Duration Adverbs

For a full survey of duration language, see 258. Saying How Long Something Lasts. Adverbs in this category include:

always, briefly, constantly, continuously, eternally, ever, fleetingly, forever, instantaneously, long, perpetually, permanently, quickly, rapidly, since, slowly, still, temporarily, not yet

Always, constantly and perpetually express duration of states or extended actions, e.g. …always worked in Madrid (with brief actions they express frequency). Ever mainly describes adjective states (e.g. ever thankful).

Long (= “for a long time”) and since (= “between then and now”) usually accompany a “present perfect” or “past perfect” verb (i.e. with HAVE). In positive statements, long directly follows HAVE (…had long known that…), and since often does too but can also go last, especially in the combination ever since. In questions and negative statements, both long and since usually go last (…have not returned since/long).

Ever since is vague about future continuation, and is hence useful, like since then, for avoiding the “finishing now” implication of until now (see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #1). Since is not to be confused with the similarly-spelt preposition and conjunction (see 61. “Since” versus “Because”).

Still similarly expresses duration from a past point, but definitely into the future (= “not finished now”). Not still says, like no longer, that something began and ended in the past. Not yet says something has not started, but will in the future. The implied duration is of non-occurrence from the past to the future:

(e) Humans have not yet visited Mars.

A slightly weaker belief about future occurrence is shown by BE or HAVE + yet to… (…are yet to visit…), while weaker still is may yet….

Finally, note the difference between continuously (duration without interruption) and continually (repetitive frequency).

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TIME ADVERBS WITH INTERESTING EXTRA MEANING

1. Point in Time

already, at last, belatedly, consequently, duly, early, finally, late, originally, prematurely

Originally is the only one of these that cannot refer equally to past, present or future. It indicates a starting situation in the past, suggesting a later change.

Early, prematurely, late and belatedly indicate occurrence of a past, present or future event at a different time from one required or agreed, early and prematurely indicating occurrence before, the other two after. Late and prematurely usually have a negative connotation, while early and belatedly are more neutral and hence politer.

Already indicates occurrence before an expected time, scheduled or not. Duly means “at the expected time”. It differs from on time in highlighting expectation rather than punctuality: the train duly arrived is more about the fact of its arrival than the time.

Consequently shows a later time like next but also a causal link. At last suggests not just a long wait like eventually but also happiness at its end (see 20. Problem Connectors, #7). Finally can suggest this too, but mostly before isolated events.

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2. Frequency

consecutively, successively

Successively is a kind of opposite of simultaneously, suggesting multiple occurrences in a sequence, each one later than the the one before. A phrasal synonym is one after the other.

Consecutively also indicates sequential occurrences but links them to a particular time framework, such as months of the year, and indicates an absence of gaps:

(d) The six books consecutively cover the years of World War 2.

This means each book is about one war year and the book sequence matches the year one.

224. Asserting the Truth of what you Say

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Speakers can use verbs, adverbs, nouns or adjectives to emphasise their belief that they are speaking the truth

EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT TRUTH MESSAGES

Most statements, even of a very elementary kind, are likely to suggest their speaker’s belief in their truth. This is because the suggestion is usually made automatically without the use of any special language, and is only removable through the addition of special uncertainty language. Thus, a sentence like The sun is shining implies its speaker’s belief in its truth, and speakers can only diminish this suggestion by some such strategy as changing the verb into uncertainty-showing may be.

Hence, it is not any means of showing a truth belief that this post is about. What I wish instead to focus on is how writers convey their truth belief in an explicit way, like this:

(a) The moon landings definitely took place.

The purpose of certainty expressions like definitely is usually to increase the addressee’s consciousness of a truth belief that could still be understood without them. This means they are a type of emphasis.They can be used with both facts and opinions  (see 107. The Language of Opinions).

Certainty language is surprisingly varied. It includes not just adverbs like definitely above, but also adjectives, nouns and verbs. This post aims to illustrate and analyse all of these possibilities. For information about the opposite – the language of uncertainty – see 96. Making Statements More Uncertain 2.

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THE VALUE OF EXPLICIT TRUTH ASSERTION

Emphasis in general has two main uses: indicating importance and highlighting a contrast (see 125. Stress and Emphasis). It is the latter that certainty language seems to achieve when added to an ordinary statement. The contrast is centred on the verb in the statement: a positive verb is emphasized not to be its negative opposite, and vice versa. Thus in (a) above the positive nature of the verb took (place) is being emphasized: the sentence highlights a belief that the negative opposite did not take (place) is untrue.

A contrast in terms of positive and negative is not the only possible one with verbs. The other one is between the basic verb used and one or more possible alternatives. For example, took place in (a) could be contrasted with were practised. However, this is not emphasis of a truth belief, and it has to be done in a different way: instead of adding a certainty adverb like definitely, one might add (rather wordily) …rather than were practised, or simply italicise took place (see 125. Stress and Emphasis, under “Emphasising a Verb”).

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TRUTH ASSERTION LANGUAGE

1. Adverbs

In addition to definitely, truth assertion adverbs include certainly, for sure, indubitably, truly, undeniably, undoubtedly and unquestionably. After negative verbs, there are also at all, at any time and by any means (see 310. Aspects of Negation, #9).

I would exclude here are some adverbs that are typically mentioned by others, such as clearly, evidently and obviously. The reason is that they do more than simply emphasise the certainty of a statement, suggesting that it is based on visible evidence and is hence probably a fact (see the end of 22. Multiple Speakers in a Text).

Adverbs in general are divided into different kinds according to both their grammatical role in sentences and their meaning type (see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs). Grammatically, certainty adverbs tend to link with entire statements rather than verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. As a result, they are common at the start of a sentence or just before its verb, and not (in formal writing at least) at the end. Meaning-wise, they are of the “judgement” variety (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs. #3).

Note the absence of surely from the adverb list above. Although it can mean the same, it more commonly weakens the assertiveness of a statement by suggesting “don’t you agree?” – a means of not totally dismissing possible disagreement (see 96. Making Statements More Uncertain 2):

(b) There is surely more to discover about English verbs.

It would not be possible to use for sure with the same meaning. Such disparities between an adverb and a similarly-spelled preposition phrase are by no means unusual (see 85. Preposition Phrases and Corresponding Adverbs).

Another alternative meaning to keep in mind is one expressible by all of the adverbs listed above except truly. Combined with a following but or equivalent, they usually suggest that their user accepts the truth of their statement yet disagrees with the opinion it implies (see 51. Making Concessions with “May”). In this use, certainly in particular acts as a formal equivalent of yes.

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2. Adjectives

Most certainty adjectives are just the adverbs without -ly. The main ones are certain, definite, indubitable, sure, true, undoubted, undeniable and unquestionable. In formal writing, the most typical way of using all except the underlined ones is probably as follows:

(c) It is undeniable that the moon landings took place.

Here, the emphasised statement is at the end after that, and its place as subject of is (+ adjective) is taken by a “dummy” it. The reason for this arrangement is that the presence of a verb in the statement makes it rather long and hence out of tune with the general English preference for shorter verb subjects (see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “it”).

Undoubted is not common in sentences like (c) because there is a preference to say there is no doubt that… (see 157. Tricky Word Contrasts 5, #1).

Certain, indubitable, undoubted, undeniable and unquestionable can also emphasise a truth as the last word in a statement:

(d) The occurrence of the moon landings is undeniable.

Here, the entire emphasised statement is able to precede is undeniable because its verb has become an “action” noun (occurrence: see 131. Uses of “Action” Nouns, #5). Such nouns seem to be common at the start of this sentence type.

Certain in sentences like (d) is slightly different from the other adjectives, since it can refer to the future as well as the past or present. It often needs a following to verb to clarify the time reference: a simple one for the future (e.g. to occur), one with have for the past (to have occurred) and one with be -ing for the present (to be occurring). Thus, sentence (d) can be rephrased:

(e) The moon landings are certain/sure to have occurred.

Care is needed to avoid confusing this sort of sentence with the kind illustrated by (c) (see 231. Confusions of Similar Structures 3, #6).

Certain and sure can additionally be used rather informally within the sequence I am…that…. Moreover, they may follow for (for certain, for sure), creating adverbial certainty expressions usable in the way described earlier. For more about certain, see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #2.

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3. Nouns

There seem to be fewer ways of asserting a truth belief with a noun. Although in English as a whole an adjective after it is… can often be replaced by its related noun after there is… (see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences, #6), most certainty adjectives cannot. The possible exception is certain (there is certainty that….), though often this seems to report someone else’s certainty rather than assert one’s own.

However, certainty adjectives with un- can usually be made into nouns by dropping un– and placing no before the noun equivalent of the remainder. Reference has already been made to the correspondence between (it is) undoubted and (there is) no doubt. In the same way, unquestionable becomes no question after there is, and undeniable becomes no denying.

One other expression, it is a (proven) fact that…, is a rare example of a certainty noun after it is rather than there is.

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4. Verbs

The truth of a statement containing a one-word verb (without any “helping” verb like BE or DO) can be asserted simply by adding DO to that verb (see 125. Stress and Emphasis). Thus, in (a) instead of definitely took place one could simply say did take place. This use of DO is usually mentioned in fairly elementary English courses, but is often just vaguely labelled “emphatic”, without any reference to truth assertion.

Alternatively, two verbs with negative meaning – DOUBT and DENY – can assert the truth of an accompanying statement by combining with cannot to form a double negative, like this:

(f) One cannot deny / doubt that the moon landings took place.

Here, the active form of these verbs is used with one as their subject and the emphasised statement as their object after that. The passive cannot be denied is also possible, either with a “dummy” it as subject, referring forward to the that part (it cannot be denied that…) or with the that part itself at the start after the fact… (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”, #2). For more about double negatives in English, see 9. Double Negatives.

One other common verb is CAN SAY WITH CERTAINTY. Again it can be used in either the active voice after one or the passive after it (it can be said with certainty that…).

194. Adverbs that Say How Much

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English has numerous adverbs that set the meaning strength of verbs, adjectives or adverbs

THE PROBLEM WITH DEGREE ADVERBS

Adverbs that say how much (so-called “intensifiers” or “adverbs of degree”) are one of many adverb subgroups that can be identified through their meaning (see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs, #1). They indicate the strength of a neighbouring verb, adjective, adverb or preposition. Two examples that are considered in detail elsewhere in these pages are much and very (see 98. “Very”, “Much” and “Very Much”).

Degree adverbs are surprisingly numerous. They vary not just according to their meaning but also, in some cases, according to the grammatical class of their partner word, or to the different forms of that word, or to their own level of formality. This means, of course, that choosing the right one in a particular situation can be a problem.

This post explores the use of degree adverbs with adjectives and adverbs on the one hand, and with verbs on the other. For use with prepositions, see 262. Adverbs that Describe a Preposition.

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DEGREE ADVERBS WITH ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Most of the adjectives and adverbs that degree adverbs are found with are “gradable” – indicative of a quality that can exist in different amounts. For example, happy is gradable because we can increase or decrease our happiness, but alive is not gradable because there are no greater or lesser amounts of life – if there is less we are no longer alive at all.

A complication is that the very concept of gradability is subjective, so that some apparently non-gradable adjectives and adverbs, such as able and certain, are sometimes used like gradable ones (a possible cause of misunderstanding: see 233. Structures with a Double Meaning 3, #3). Moreover, some adjectives that are definitely non-gradable are sometimes used with a degree adverb for dramatic effect, e.g. half dead.

Some degree adverbs can be fitted on a continuum from low to high strength; others cannot.

Continuum Adverbs

A special problem in choosing a continuum adverb for an adjective or adverb is that it depends on not just the strength to be expressed but also whether the adjective/adverb is in its base, comparative or superlative form: continuum adverbs usable with any of these forms are rare. The main possibilities are:

Typical Continuum Adverbs in Ascending Order of Strength

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Various observations can be made about this list.

1. Very Slightly

An alternative, particularly before comparatives and superlatives, is fractionally or the slightly informal just about. With superlatives, any use of the normally follows the degree adverb, e.g. fractionally the most difficult (for situations requiring the with superlatives, see the end of 82. Common Errors in Making Comparisons).

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2. Slightly

An alternative to this before both base and comparative adjectives / adverbs is (just) a little, e.g. (just) a little hard(er). A bit is also possible, but is informal (see 108. Formal and Informal Words). Before preposition-like adverbs, slightly and just are interchangeable (just/slightly above).

Marginally is usable with comparatives as well as superlatives. With a superlative, any use of the again follows it.

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3. Quite

The strength of this word is around 40%. Most English coursebooks, however, observe that it becomes 100% (= “completely”) before “non-gradable” adjectives / adverbs like certain(ly), complete(ly), correct(ly),  perfect(ly) and the same. To express approximately 40% similarity, one should either say quite similar or roughly the same (see 231 Confusions of Similar Structures 3, #2).

The main alternatives to quite are fairly, moderately, rather, relatively, to a degree, up to a point and informal pretty. Moderately is common in data analyses (see 115. Surveying Numerical Data, #3). To a degree and up to a point tend to follow their partner word rather than go before (e.g. difficult to a degree). Up to a point is useful for showing partial agreement (see 152. Agreeing and Disagreeing in Formal Contexts, #2 “Agreeing”).

Coursebooks often say that fairly goes with positive-sounding words like freely and happy, rather with negative ones like ill (see 193. A Test of Formal Language Use, #25). Rather is even possible with nouns (see 313. Adverbs Linked Closely to a Noun, #1). These meanings make it possible to change the way a word sounds. Fairly easy, for instance, might positively describe something needing to be easy like finding employment, while rather easy might be a complaint about something needing to be difficult, such as fitness training.

With comparative adjectives and adverbs, alternatives to moderately are appreciably, relatively, somewhat, to a degree and (placed after) up to a point. A following up to a point can also replace to a degree with superlatives.

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4. Very

For detailed discussion of this word, see 98. “Very”, “Much” and “Very Much”. One common error particularly highlighted there is very much before base-form adjectives.

Very before base adjectives (not adverbs) is sometimes replaceable by greatly. Adjectives allowing this include ambitious, apparent, beneficial, important, responsible and unfair – excluded adjectives are usually short everyday ones like good, fast and high. Another very alternative, equally possible with base adjectives and adverbs, is informal really. In addition, well can accompany a few base adjectives (well aware) and various preposition-like adverbs (inside, outside, above etc: see 256. Unusual Meanings of Familiar Words, #2).

Very must become so before a later consequential that… (e.g. …is so clever that… – see 32. Expressing Consequences), and so is increasingly common even without one (…is so clever – see 156. Mentioning what the Reader Knows Already, #5). Note also only too (see 251. The Grammar of “Only”, #6).

With comparatives, possible “very” words include much (much better), far, considerably, greatly, substantially, informal a lot and ironic rather. With superlatives, the possibilities include much the (much the best), substantially the and the very.

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5. Extremely

This has numerous synonyms before base forms, but many are restricted to particular adjectives or adverbs, forming “collocations” (see 16. Ways of Distinguishing Similar Words, #5). Common examples are seriously ill, painfully aware, vitally important, fiercely loyal, bitterly opposed, woefully inadequate, heavily indebted, sharply critical, deeply sorry, hugely indebted, massively aware and highly contagious.

More widely usable with base forms are most (without the: see 82. Common Errors in Making Comparisons), terrifically (see 284. Words with a Surprising Meaning, #4) and the slightly informal ever so (see 272. Uses of “Ever”, #5).

With both comparatives and superlatives, a widely-usable alternative to very much is easily (e.g. easily higher/the highest). In addition, superlatives (always with the) can follow quite, by far and far and away (see 305. Wording next to Superlatives, #6). They can also precede by far (see 292. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar 2, #6).

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Other Degree Adverbs

One kind of degree adverb that does not fit easily into the above table shows not the overall strength of a following adjective or adverb, but strength in relation to something else. One group – more, less, (the) most and (the) least – forms comparative and superlative adjectives / adverbs. Related to these are doubly, equality-showing as and equally, and so or that meaning “as much as that” (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”).

As has or implies a second as – not an adverb, but a preposition with a subsequent noun. This noun names something that an earlier-mentioned noun matches in terms of the adjective or adverb meaning. Thus, in X is as high as Y, X matches Y in the quality expressed by high (see 149. Saying how Things are Similar).

Also notable are enough and sufficiently, which say the amount of an adjective or adverb quality has reached or passed a necessary minimum; and too, excessively and overly, which indicate undesirable excess (see also only too in 251. The Grammar of “Only”, #6). The following example of enough is from 189. Expressing Sufficiency:

(a) People were wealthy enough to own a car.

Enough is unusual in needing to follow its adjective (wealthy). Too, of course, goes before. Both (along with sufficiently) have or imply a following to verb of consequence (see 32. Expressing Consequences).

Another group of adverbs makes an adjective or adverb amount sound negative or insufficient. Examples are hardly, scarcely, pitifully, barely, little, half, partly and almost. Collocations are common, e.g. barely enough and little interested. Similar are expressions with percent, as in 6 percent full and 25% better (see 201. Words with Complicated Grammar 1, #2).

How before adjectives and adverbs (e.g. How far…?) enquires about a quantity without suggesting its size (see 285. Complexities of Question Words, #8).

Finally, there are exactness and completeness adverbs, especially exactly, just, absolutely, completely, fully, perfectly, quite (+ non-gradable adjective / adverb), right, totally, utterly and wholly. Some are quite collocational, e.g. perfectly possible, just ridiculous and totally inadequate. Right typically accompanies preposition-like adverbs such as above, through and alongside.

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DEGREE ADVERBS WITH VERBS

Many of the above adverbs can accompany a verb:

(b) Children thrive if they play enough.

Exceptions – more likely with adjectives and adverbs – include pretty, relatively, so, too and very. Quite and rather are similar, since only a few verbs combine with them, especially LIKE, PREFER and WANT (not quite, though, is much more widely usable, and quite meaning “completely” often accompanies [DIS]AGREE and OPPOSE). Note that easily, fairly, far and really used with verbs are not degree adverbs.

On the other hand, there are some adverbs that go more typically with verbs than adjectives/adverbs. Most seem to mean “very much” or “extremely”. They do not make up all of the verb-partnering adverbs with this meaning – utterly, for example goes equally well with verbs or adjectives. Like their adjective-partnering equivalents, they are very varied and form numerous collocations. Common collocations include fail miserably, wholeheartedly agree, heavily outnumber, bitterly complain, badly miss, hotly deny, fiercely oppose, widely differ and fervently hope.

Also notable is all but (= “almost completely”). Often the partner verb is in a past tense or passive voice. Typical examples are collapsed, finished, recovered and succeeded.

Adverbs may go before or after a verb. However, care is needed, when the verb has an object, not to place the adverb between the two – heavily, for example, should follow opponents in outnumber their opponents, not outnumber (see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs, #3). Note also that absolutely is usable only after some verbs – perhaps those with a “non-gradable” meaning like DISAGREE and DISAPPEAR. It would be unlikely, for example, after SUFFER or INCREASE.

Finally, care is needed not to confuse degree adverbs next to a verb with pronouns, since some words, such as enough, can be either. Pronoun uses occupy typical noun positions in a sentence like subject and object. In (b), enough is not the subject (= children) and not the object because play here has a meaning that does not need an object. Enough would become the object, and hence a pronoun, if the verb were do instead.

Other words that can combine with a verb as either a degree adverb or a pronoun include a bit, (a) little, less, least, a lot, much, very much, more and most. Note, though, that much is quite rare with a positive verb. For examples with a lot, see 193. A Test of Formal Language Use, #13.