134. Words with a Variable Preposition

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Some words have alternative partner prepositions linked with different meanings

THE PROBLEM OF VARIABLE PREPOSITIONS

Choosing between prepositions depends sometimes on the meaning that we want the preposition to express (before 6.00, for example, rather than at, by, around or after), sometimes on the surrounding grammatical structure we are using (for example by after a passive verb), and sometimes on the needs of a particular partner word (see 111. Words with a Typical Preposition and 164. Fixed Preposition Phrases). This post is about the way the first and last of these three uses can occur together; in other words it presents limited choices of partner prepositions that some words allow depending on the meaning being expressed.

The main problem with partner prepositions, whether variable or not, is that they can rarely be predicted from the basic space-time meanings that prepositions have elsewhere – they can only be learned through observation or by checking the dictionary entry for their partner word. However, words with a variable preposition, like those with a fixed one, do show some helpful trends when they are grouped according to their grammatical class.

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CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS WITH A VARIABLE PREPOSITION

1. Adjectives

Partner prepositions of adjectives usually follow them. Adjectives with a variable preposition quite often express an emotion (see 203. Expanding an Adjective with Words after it). Common examples are delighted, happy, glad, pleased (all with about, for, with); angry, annoyed, furious, upset, disappointed (all with about, at, with); embarrassed (about, at, for); anxious, concerned (= worried), sorry (all with about, for); confident (about, of) and disgusted (at, with).

On the other hand, there are also emotion adjectives with only one preposition: surprised, amazed and shocked (all at), interested (in), bored and satisfied (with) and worried / excited (about). Although these words sometimes precede by, they do so not as adjectives but as verbs (in the “past participle” form), where they have a different meaning (see 245. Adjectives with a Participle Ending).

When an adjective allows different prepositions, meaning determines the choice, and particular prepositions quite often mean the same after different adjectives. This is the case, for example, with about after various emotion adjectives, such as concerned, angry, anxious, confident, embarrassed, happy, pleased, sad and sorry. Before a person noun (e.g. the manager), about can usually link the emotion to that person’s experience or performance. To show the emotion about the people themselves, the preposition sometimes varies: about still after concerned, embarrassed, sad and sorry, but with after angry, disgusted, happy and pleased.

Concerned has about for both meanings because with changes it into a verb meaning “involved” (see 81. Tricky Word Contrasts 2, #10). Sorry varies its preposition need according to whether it indicates sympathy or apology (see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #6).

For after emotion adjectives of a mainly positive kind (e.g. delighted, embarrassed, happy, pleased, thrilled) typically precedes a human-referring noun and associates the emotion with the situation of the person or people in question, rather than with them personally or anything that they have achieved. Consider this:

(a) The company is pleased for its employees.

The message here is that the company likes not its employees (which would be expressed by with), nor something that they have achieved (= about), but the happiness that an achievement has brought them.

A different meaning is conveyed by for after concerned and anxious, applying the emotion to a future rather than existing situation.

Another kind of adjective that typically allows different prepositions after it indicates ability. Adept, clever, competent, effective, expert, good and skilled all allow at before the area of ability (e.g. competent at equations), while the underlined words also allow in before a more general ability area (e.g. competent in mathematics). On the other hand, if with is used after any of these adjectives, the following noun represents a beneficiary of the ability (e.g. good with children). For an opportunity to find an error with one of these adjectives, see 214. Test your Command of Grammar 2.

Other adjectives with alternative prepositions include familiar (to, with), responsible (to, for) and open (to, for). The first two need a person noun after to, while open needs an action noun or -ing verb (see 35. Words Followed by “to -ing”).

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2. Nouns

Some nouns have a partner preposition in front of them, e.g. on an occasion, while others have it after, e.g. a limit on… (see 111. Words with a Typical Preposition). Variable prepositions, however, seem mainly to be of the kind that follow their noun. A rare exception, with choices before, is scene (see 317. Tricky Word Contrasts 13, #6).

Preposition choices after a noun sometimes make a contrast between all and some of something. Consider the noun news. News of an event means that all of the event is the news, whereas news about it means that the event is already known about, and the news is additional information, i.e. a part of it. Similar nouns include ignorance, knowledge, a question, an idea, a report, a statement and a suggestion (see 214. Test your Command of Grammar 2, #15 and 287. Speech and Thought Nouns, #2). Sometimes, on replaces about, especially after a report.

In a related contrast, of after nouns meaning “problem” (difficulty, issue, matter, problem, question) introduces a specification of the problem (e.g. the problem of where to go: see 219. Wording next to Indirect Questions, #2); whereas with after any of these except question introduces the problem possessor:

(b) The difficulty with dogs is that they need to be exercised.

This use of with can on occasion cause a double meaning (see 301. Structures with a Double Meaning 5, #4).

Note also a theory of/about. Of suggests a much more intricate theory than about. Thus, a theory of gravity is a proper scientific theory attempting to explain every aspect, whereas a theory about gravity is more like a single general belief about it.

Advantage, attraction, benefit, merit and value need of before something possessing them (e.g. the advantages of walking), but they often have in when following there is… (e.g. there is an advantage in walking: see 277. Advantages and Disadvantages, #4).

A different type of variation is with nouns derived from verbs. It usually exists when the noun is able to express two different meanings, one an action and one not (see 280. Alternative Meanings of Action Nouns). For example, the noun receipt, which is derived from RECEIVE, can mean either “receiving” or “something written to acknowledge a purchase”. With such nouns, it is usually found that the action meaning is followed by of (receipt of visitors), the other meaning by another preposition (a receipt for goods). For more examples, see 31. Prepositions after Action Nouns 1.

Slightly different is the action noun an increase, which shows what increases with a following of or in, regardless of whether or not an action is being expressed (see 49. Prepositions after Action Nouns 2). The difference is in the cause of the increase: of indicates an external agent, in does not. Thus, an increase of taxes is something brought about by an agency such as a government, while an increase in taxes is vague about agency – taxes might even have increased by themselves. The former corresponds to taxes are/were increased, the latter to taxes increase(d).

The same contrast affects various synonyms and antonyms of increase, provided they have a related verb like INCREASE which can be used both with and without an object (see 4. Verbs that Don’t Have to be Passive). They include acceleration, expansion, improvement, intensification, cut, decrease, diminution and reduction (see 115. Surveying Numerical Data).

A special use is found with cost and its opposite value. To say what possesses a cost/value, the preposition is of (e.g. the cost of inflation), but the sufferer of the cost needs to (the cost to the government). This use of to is similar to that with indirect objects (see 126. Verbs with an Indirect Object).

A related use of to is found after instruction: an instruction to (someone) to do (something). Alternatively (or additionally), this noun can have for + procedure, e.g. …for making bread.

Finally, mention must be made of research, which can be followed by in, into or on. The first of these seems normally to show the broad subject area involved (e.g. research in biology). The other two often seem interchangeable, though perhaps into shows a more precise object of research (e.g. research on primates/into primate intelligence). It is important to remember that the related verb RESEARCH is not followed by any preposition at all (see 42. Unnecessary Prepositions).

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3. Verbs

Verbs with a partner preposition tend to be called “prepositional”. They are not to be confused with adverb-using “phrasal” verbs (see 139. Phrasal Verbs). Sometimes their meaning changes if the preposition is dropped (see 44. Troublesome Prepositional Verbs). Sometimes, though, meaning changes are linked with different prepositions. The following are of interest:

AGREE with/on/to
APPLY for/to
ASK about/for
CARE for/about
FEEL for/like
GET into/on/off/over
GO into/over/through/with
HEAR about/of
LEARN about/of
LISTEN for/to
LIVE for/in/through
LOOK at/after/for/round
REPORT on/to
PLAY with/at/for/on
SEE about/through

The meaning differences can be found with a dictionary (or by clicking on an indicated link). However, CARE and HEAR/LEARN deserve comment. CARE FOR means either “like” or “provide care for”. The latter does not mean “supervise” (= LOOK AFTER) but rather “cater for health needs of”. We might say, for example, that nurses care for patients. CARE ABOUT, by contrast, means “consider important”, as in care about politics.

The difference between of and about after HEAR and LEARN is the same as that after news (see above): HEAR/ LEARN OF means “become aware of”, while HEAR/ LEARN ABOUT means “be told something extra about something familiar”.

133. Confusions of Similar Structures 1

Beware of combining two similar grammatical structures into a single incorrect one

THE PROBLEM OF STRUCTURE CONFUSION

Grammar errors are not all of the same kind (see 202. Some Strategies for Learning English, “Practice Strategies” #1). This post is about a kind where parts of two confusingly similar correct structures are placed together in what I have elsewhere called an “impossible combination” (see 100. What is a Grammar Error?). As an example, in spite of and despite are spelt similarly and mean the same, and this quite often leads to the use of the incorrect form *despite of.

This grammar error type is quite a common one, with the result that the present post is just the first of various ones about it. Others are 165. Confusions of Similar Structures 2,  231. Confusions of Similar Structures 3. and 303. Confusions of Similar Structures 4.

Note that not all similar grammar structures give rise to such “hybrid” errors. For some that usually do not, see 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1. Moreover, confusions of similar structures should be distinguished from confusions of similar words, which are separately illustrated in this blog in posts with the title Tricky Word Contrasts. For grammar errors of other kinds than the one considered here, see 10 Words with Unexpected Grammar 1,  142 Grammar Errors with Passive Verbs and 144. Words that are Often Heard Wrongly.

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EXAMPLES OF CONFUSION ERRORS

1.  “many” versus “many of the”

If we want to place many before a plural noun, the way we do it depends on whether or not the noun needs the (or a grammatically similar alternative like these or their). Without the, many by itself is necessary – e.g. many words – while with the, many needs of after it – e.g. many of the words (see 160: Uses of “of”, Noun Use #5). When many is directly before a noun, it is acting like an adjective, but before of the it is a pronoun.

Many of can also go before adjectives used with the to refer to a general group of people, as in many of the poor (see 6. Adjectives with no Noun 1: People-Naming). Since adjectives with this noun-like use always have the, they always need many of: they cannot have many by itself.

The impossible combination that often arises here is *many of without the (e.g. *many of words). It is not just many that this confusion can affect, but also various other quantity adjectives, including all, any, both, each, enough, every, most, much, some and (a) few.

A further source of confusion is that some synonyms of many – the majority, plenty and informal a lot – always need of, either with or without the: they are only pronouns. Numerous and various, on the other hand, are only adjectives, and do not usually have either of or the.

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2. “others” versus “other people”

The plural use of other only sometimes has -s; it does not have it when the next word is a noun (like people, things, ideas or problems). The reason is that, when the next word is a noun, other is an adjective, a kind of word with no plural form in English, but by itself other is a pronoun, a kind of word that does often have a plural form (see 204. Grammatical Agreement).

The ability to be used alone in a noun position without a following noun is a defining feature of pronouns. The ability to change into an adjective by being placed before a noun is a property of many but not all pronouns. It is possessed, for example, by this, her, enough and one, but not by it, theirs, who and none (see 28. Pronoun Errors). The impossible combination that the above contrast sometimes produces is *others + people (or any plural noun).

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3. Participle versus Relative Clause

Participles are verbs with -ing or -ed (or the irregular -ed equivalent possessed by some verbs after HAVE, as in taken, begun and put). One of their uses is as a substitute for a combined relative pronoun (who, which or that) and full (non-participle) verb. For example, taking often equates to that takes and known to who are known (-ing representing active verbs, -n passive ones). It is only rarely that such substitutions are not possible (see 52. Participles Placed Just after their Noun, #3).

The incorrect form that is sometimes generated by these alternatives is a relative pronoun with a participle rather than full verb form, e.g. *that taking or *who known. Perhaps the similarity of participles to some full verb forms is part of the reason for the error: taking, for example, is easily confused with the present continuous tense is taking, and the “past” participle named is identical to that verb’s ordinary past simple tense form.

The reason why a relative pronoun cannot accompany a participle is that they both do the same thing. Consider the participle living in the following:

(a) People living in glass houses should not throw stones.

What the participle does here is enable its verb LIVE to be in the same sentence as another verb (throw). Without the participle form, LIVE would need to be in a new sentence. This is because of the rule that every verb needs its own sentence unless it is accompanied by a “joining device” (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). The participle form of verbs is a type of joining device.

Relative pronouns are also joining devices: who live instead of living equally well enables LIVE to accompany throw. The problem with *who living is thus that the joining is being done twice. This is possible in a sentence where two verbs need to be fitted into a sentence already containing one, but is not possible in (a). Here is a correct use of who living (verbs underlined):

(b) Commuting is expensive for people who living in one country work in another.

Here, who adds WORK to the main verb is, and -ing adds LIVE. In general, the number of joining devices in a sentence must always be one less than the number of verbs – not the same. For an opportunity to recognise another example of the error discussed in this section, see 214. Test your Command of Grammar 2.

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4. “as” + (Citation Verb) versus (Citation Verb) + “that”

Citation verbs express different kinds of saying and thinking, and link author names in a text with their reported words or ideas (see 76. Tenses of Citation Verbs). Many allow a choice between as and that as linkers. Consider this:

(c) Jones (2013, p.78) argues THAT social benefits can assist an escape from poverty.

As used instead of that here must be placed before, not after, the author’s name, and it necessitates a comma after the citation verb – As Jones (2013, p.78) argues, … (see 183. Statements between Commas).

The common error that these two alternatives can induce is the use of both as and that together. This is an error for the same reason that combining a relative pronoun and a participle is (see above): it introduces too many joining devices.

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5. “keep up with” versus “cope with”

There is both a form and a meaning similarity here. Formwise, although keep and cope are not spelt so similarly, their pronunciations are the same except for one vowel (/ki:p/ versus /kəʊp/). The meaning similarity is that both involve the idea of struggle. Keep up with means struggle to do the same as another person or thing, while cope with means struggle to control or manage someone or something. The incorrect (or non-standard) intermediate form that often results is *cope up with.

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6. “as regards” versus “with regard to”

Both of these similar-looking phrases can be used before a noun (or equivalent) to mark it as the topic of what follows. For example, instead of the word formwise near the start of the previous paragraph, one could write as regards (or with regard to) form.

The intermediate expression that one sometimes finds here is with regards to, placing -s in the with phrase instead of the as one. What makes this confusion especially easy is the fact that with regards does also exist in English, but with a different meaning – conveying greetings rather than introducing a topic (see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #9).

The reason for the variable use of -s is that regards is a singular verb needing -s like goes and has, while regard is an uncountable noun, as unable to have plural -s as luck or advice. We know this because as in as regards is a conjunction (typically followed by verbs), while with in with regard to is a preposition (followed by nouns).

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7. “all” versus “every”

These words can both make general statements about the whole world: for example, we can normally say that wings belong to either all birds or every bird. The main difference, of course, is in their grammar. All makes whole-world generalizations with plural nouns (e.g. all birds) or uncountable nouns (e.g. all work), but not with singular countable nouns (*all bird). Every, on the other hand, makes whole-world generalizations only with singular countable nouns (e.g. every bird).

A fairly common confusion is adding a plural -s to a noun after every (*every birds). The reverse, dropping -s from a noun after all, seems less common, perhaps because the meaning of both words feels more plural than singular. A plural verb after every is also a possible error (*every bird have wings). For a fuller comparison of the two words, see 169. “All”, “Each” and “Every”.

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8. “go shopping” versus “go to the shops”

The error to avoid here is *go to shopping. The meaning of to requires a following object, not an action. Shops are an object; shopping is an action.

Shopping can follow go without to (or similar) because it is a verb representing a leisure activity (= “purchasing things”): GO combines directly with the -ing form of many such verbs (see 176. Ways of Using GO, #3).

Note that *go for shopping is as much an error as *go to shopping (see 165. Confusions of Similar Structures 2, #3).