160. Uses of “of”

 

“Of” and a partner noun can combine with nouns, verbs or adjectives to express widely varying meanings

THE VERSATILITY OF “of”

Of is a preposition of a quite unusual kind. In one respect, its use is rather restricted. Whereas most other prepositions can with their following noun equally well form both adjective-like and adverb-like phrases (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #2), of combinations seem typically adjective-like. Moreover, of is one of only a few prepositions that cannot also be used alone as an adverb (see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs, #5).

In another respect, however, of has an exceptionally wide range of uses: practically every Guinlist post on English preposition usage makes reference to it. Here I wish to gather together a wide variety of of uses, in order both to reinforce what I have said elsewhere about this small preposition, and also perhaps to help some more general appreciation of it. The uses can be classified according to whether of and its partner noun say something about a noun, a verb or an adjective.

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“of” PHRASES LINKED TO NOUNS

The likelihood of of and its partner noun acting like an adjective rather than an adverb means that of phrases are particularly likely to link with nouns. In a few cases, what necessitates of instead of another preposition is its own partner noun after it: the two typically appear together in what is often called a “collocation”. Examples are of concern, of importance, of interest and of…kinds. For more about of importance, see 219. Wording next to Indirect Questions. For more about of…kinds, see 162. Writing about Classifications. For additional of phrases, see 164. Fixed Preposition Phrases.

More often, however, the following noun is not what necessitates of: instead it is either the noun before or a need to express a particular meaning of of. The former seems the determinant in phrases like a source of confusion and the possibility of succeeding. Meaning takes over when we say, for example, the destruction of Pompeii, preferring of to such logical alternatives as in, by or near.

The possible meanings of of between two nouns are quite varied. The most obvious is perhaps that of “possession” or “ownership”, often paraphrasable with an apostrophe ending (see 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #5). Apart from this, the following seem especially notable.

1. Showing the Object of a Noun Action

A grammatical “object” is a noun or equivalent placed usually after an active verb and naming something affected by that verb’s action or state (see 8. Object-Dropping Errors). However, the idea of “affected” can also belong to nouns that are not the object of a verb, but are instead associated with verb-like meaning expressed by another noun.

Nouns that express a verb-like meaning are widespread in formal writing (see 131. Uses of “Action” Nouns). Most are made by adding an ending (-tion, -ment, -al, -age), or even no ending at all, to a verb, as in creation, improvement, removal, storage and change (see 249. Action Noun Endings). Such nouns are just as able to link with an object-like noun as verbs are, but they need a preposition to do it. Of is the normal object-showing preposition. It has this meaning in the destruction of Pompeii, and also in the following:

(a) Growth depends on the creation of demand.

Here, if creation was an active verb instead of a noun, demand would be its object, without of.

A problem in this area for learners of English is that sometimes other prepositions have to be used instead of of. For advice on which ones and when, see 31. Prepositions after Action Nouns 1. It is also worth noting that the noun after object-showing of can often, like nouns after other prepositions, drop of and move directly in front of the other noun – e.g. demand creation in (b) – without changing the meaning (see 136. Types of Description by Nouns). Sometimes the relocated noun even has -’s (see 58. Optional Apostrophe Endings).

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2. Showing the Subject of a Noun Action

A typical preposition for showing the subject of a noun action is by:

(b) Information storage by the brain is now better understood.

However, by is likely to become subject-showing of after action nouns whose corresponding verb normally lacks an object (see 49. Prepositions after Action Nouns 2), e.g.:

(c) The appearance of the sun changes everything.

If the verb APPEAR was used here instead of the noun appearance, the sun would be its subject, and there would be no object.

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3. Enabling Uncountable Nouns to be Used like Countable Ones

This use is commonly illustrated at elementary level with such phrases as loaves of bread and pieces of advice. The words after of are uncountable and hence cannot be used after plural words like many and certain singular ones like a and each (see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a” and 169. “All”, “Each” and “Every”).

The words before of get round this restriction. Of is always the link word. For some fairly advanced examples, see 180. Nouns that Count the Uncountable.

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4. Showing Other Kinds of Inter-Noun Relation

Most of the other kinds of relation that of can show between two nouns are listed elsewhere within this blog in 136. Types of Description by Nouns. For example, “component-holder”, as in a leg of a table (a table leg), suggests belonging; “material”, as in piping of copper (copper piping), suggests composition; and “measurement”, as in an essay of six pages (a six-page essay), suggests extent. For more measurement examples, see 163. Ways of Naming Properties.

Various other posts illustrate how of can mean “which is”. Examples are danger of death (in 78. Infinitive versus Preposition after Nouns), stage of crisis (contrasted with stage of development in 170. Logical Errors in Written English), an increase of 60% (201. Words with Complicated Grammar, #2), the advantage of speed (277. Advantages & Disadvantages, #4), the name of Caesar (206. Ways of Conveying a Name), and the question of suffering (219. Wording next to Indirect Questions, #2).

After some nouns of can be omitted to leave an apposition construction, (e.g. the name Caesar), but after others it cannot (e.g. problems / questions of poverty and disease: see the end of 54. Sentence Lists 1). 

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5. Linking a Quantity Word or Superlative to “the” + Noun

Both quantity words (one, both, enough, much, all, etc.) and superlative adjectives (e.g. the best) sometimes have a following noun. When this noun has the (or other “definite” word, such as his), the two must be separated from the quantity word or superlative by of, and countable nouns must be plural, e.g. many of the books versus many books.

Quantity words before of the are pronouns, but without it are adjective-like (technically called “determiners” – see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”). Superlative adjectives before of the imply a noun in between (see 305. Wording next to Superlatives, #4).

For more on of after quantity words, see 133. Confusions of Similar Structures 1 (#1),  138. Test your Command of Grammar (#24),  169. “All”, “Each” and “Every”,  189. Expressing Sufficiency,  263. Uses of “One” and “Ones” and 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #2.

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“of” PHRASES ASSOCIATED WITH VERBS

It is less common for of + noun to link with a verb. This is because preposition phrases linked to a verb usually have adverb properties, a rarity with of phrases. However, there is one common way of linking of with a verb: through so-called “prepositional” verbs:

(d) Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen.

The special feature of prepositional verbs is that the preposition they need is deemed to be a part of them rather than of any following phrase, so that the noun after the preposition (hydrogen and oxygen above) is not combining with it to make an adverbial phrase, but is instead a simple complement (as above) or object (see 44. Troublesome Prepositional Verbs). Thus, the verb in (d) is consists of, not just consists.

Not all prepositional verbs have the verb and preposition next to each other as in (d). Many need a noun or pronoun in between (see 123. Prepositional Verbs Containing a Noun). Here is an example with of:

(e) Teachers should remind LEARNERS of past lessons.

Of is fairly rare directly after an active verb like CONSIST; other examples include APPROVE OF, BEWARE OF, CONCEIVE OF, KNOW OF and THINK OF. However, of is more frequent after verbs with an object like REMIND, other examples being ACCUSE … OF, APPRAISE … OF, CONVINCE … OF, DEPRIVE … OF, ROB … OF and KEEP TRACK OF (see as well 141. Ways of Using MAKE, #4). If such verbs are passive, the middle noun becomes the subject and of comes immediately after the verb:

(f) Chalk rocks are made of animal skeletons.

Some passive combinations actually have no corresponding active form, e.g. be composed of (see 196. Saying what is inside Things). Also notable are a few so-called “phrasal-prepositional” verbs (see 139. Phrasal Verbs, #5), e.g. BACK OUT OF, GET OUT OF and GROW OUT OF.

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USAGE WITH ADJECTIVES

Adjectives quite often have a partner of phrase. There are at least two different types of such phrase. In one, the possibility of of depends on which adjective is chosen: change the adjective and of may have to change to another preposition. This kind of partnership is thus another one of “collocation” (see 111. Words with a Typical Preposition).

Adjectives that make collocations with of sometimes express particular types of meaning. One group – devoid, empty, full, short – indicates how much of the thing named after of is present (however, many other adjectives do this with with – e.g. complete, crammed, crowded, filled, full up and packed – and lacking needs in).

Of adjectives may also express emotions. Examples are afraid, ashamed, confident, fearful, fond, glad, hopeful, jealous, nervous, proud, scared, sure, terrified and tired. Adjectives like this, however, sometimes need that or a to verb instead of of (see 203. Expanding an Adjective with Words after it and 175. Tricky Word Contrasts 6, #5). Moreover, not all emotion adjectives allow of: interested takes in, surprised takes at, and happy (and others like it, e.g. pleased) need with or about (see 134. Words with a Variable Preposition).

Other of adjectives include aware, capable, characteristic, conscious, guilty, reminiscent, typical and worthy.

A rather different use of of with adjectives helps to express a comparison:

(g) Of all the aids to language learning, dictionaries are the best.

Of here means “within the group of”. Adding all is not compulsory but adds emphasis. The idea of comparison, of course, is expressed by the superlative adjective best. The of phrase could be placed straight after it. Comparative forms of adjectives and adverbs can also be used with of in this way. Even base adjectives are possible, but they perhaps need a new noun after them – a good choice for the best in (g).

Note that of is not the only preposition possible with comparison words: best, for example, can also combine with at to name the area of excellence (e.g. best at football) rather than its owner’s rivals.

159. Exotic Grammar Structures 2

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Some English grammar structures are unlikely to be described in language coursebooks

THE NATURE OF “EXOTIC” STRUCTURES

Grammar descriptions for learners of English do not include every structure in the language. Some structures may be left out because they have not been clearly identified by grammarians. Many others are absent because they are quite rare in English: coursebooks tend not to have enough space for everything, and they give priority to the most common structures in the belief that those will help learners the most to communicate.

However, structures that are not commonly found in language-learning coursebooks can still be useful to know, especially for English users with a more advanced competence, who are the target audience of this blog. It is in this belief that the present post is offered. Six structures are described below. Further Guinlist posts on the same topic are listed at the start of 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1.

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STRUCTURE LIST

1. “As” + Lone Auxiliary Verb

Auxiliary verbs usually combine with another verb to help show a grammatical meaning like tense or negativity, or a “functional” one like prediction (see 237. Auxiliary Verbs in Professional Communication). They include BE, HAVE, DO and the “modals” (will, can, should etc.).

If an auxiliary verb is used by itself, it is normally understood to be repeating another verb, mentioned earlier. Multi-word earlier verbs are repeated with the first of their auxiliaries; single-word verbs (except BE) are repeated with DO (or DO SO – see 212. Special Uses of “Do” 1). After the conjunction as, an auxiliary verb by itself will be in the same sentence as the verb it is repeating, and it will suggest a similarity:

(a) The Rocky Mountains have been formed recently, as have The Himalayas.

(b) Motor vehicles emit harmful gases, as coal does .

Sentence (a) says that The Rocky Mountains and The Himalayas have similarly recent origins. Sentence (b) says that motor vehicles act like coal in emitting harmful gases.

An important difference between (a) and (b) is the word order of the subject and verb after as: verb first in (a), subject first in (b). The choice between these possibilities depends on whether or not the reader is expected to be familiar with the information involved.

Putting the verb straight after as suggests unfamiliarity, so that the statement – the age of the Himalayas above – is a new point being added to the earlier main one. Putting the subject first suggests familiarity, so that the statement is only helping the main point – the emissions of motor vehicles above – to be better understood (see 149. Saying How Things are Similar). Sometimes in this use, much is placed before as to indicate a stronger similarity (see 311. Exotic Grammar Structures 9, #4).

For more situations where some or all of a verb must precede its subject, see 307. Word Order Variations.

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2. BE + “all very well”

Placing the adverb well after BE instead of the adjective good is slightly strange but not unique to this expression (cf. it is as well to… in 247. Exotic Grammar Structures 6, #6). All very well typically warns of that a major disadvantage of what it describes is about to be named:

(c) Parking charges are all very well, but they will not reduce traffic.

We understand here that the writer sees some good in parking charges, but not enough to overcome a major disadvantage, which is going to be described next after an introductory but or equivalent (yet, however etc.).

This structure is very similar to the combination of may and but that is examined in detail in the Guinlist post 51. Making Concessions with “May”. Compare the following example with (c):

(d) Cycling may promote good health, but it can be dangerous.

Again, there is a mention of benefit in what the writer is about to condemn. The difference is perhaps grammatical: that may (and its synonyms) goes with statements of benefit (subject + verb), while all very well accompanies nouns or their equivalents. Sentence (d) could begin Cycling is all very well … , but only by dropping the words may promote good health.

In (c), the object of criticism starts the sentence. Often, however, a starting it is will be preferred:

(e) It is all very well to charge for parking, but that will not reduce traffic.

Beginning like this makes it possible for a verb (to charge for…) to be the object of criticism instead of a noun. Its normal way of becoming more noun-like is by having the to (infinitive) form, but sometimes it will have -ing instead. For guidelines on choosing one rather than the other, see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “It”.

The use of all very well is especially suited to mentions of a single advantage and disadvantage. For advice on comparing multiple points, see 277. Advantages & Disadvantages. 

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3. Add-On Adjectives

Adjectives normally need a partner noun (see 6. Adjectives with No Noun 1). Their position relative to this noun is mostly either just before it or after it with a link verb like BE in between. In special cases, they can also go immediately after (see 109. Placing an Adjective after its Noun).

In a more exotic use, adjectives can be placed after their noun in a separate phrase at the end of a sentence, rather as participles can (see 101. Add-On Participles). Consider these:

(f) The virus spreads easily, deadly to all who contract it.

(g) Consumers make careful choices, always keen to save money.

Here, the adjectives deadly and always keen come a long way after their partner nouns virus and consumers, the subjects of the sentences. For an adjective to do this at the end of a sentence, it must meet three conditions: [1] be the first word(s) after the comma, [2] have some following words that make its meaning more precise (see 203. Expanding an Adjective with Words after it), and [3] express something that is true during the main event in the sentence.

This last condition means the virus in (f) is understood as being deadly while it spreads easily. Add-on adjectives are hence one of numerous ways to mark two situations as simultaneous (see 225. Simultaneous Occurrence). For more about adjective positions, see 283. Lesser-Known Facts about Adjectives, #2.

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4. Subject Complements without a Verb

Subject complements are mostly nouns or adjectives that identify or describe the subject of an intervening link verb like BE (see 220. Features of Complements). Some languages allow BE to be dropped before a complement, but English usually does not, except in certain special situations (see 192. When BE can be Omitted). The following sentences illustrate one of these situations:

(h) These bacteria spread easily, their effects … INVISIBLE.

(i) Curried food is popular in Britain, its attraction … partly DUE TO THE MYSTIQUE OF ITS INGREDIENTS.

(j) Napoleon became Emperor, his dreams … A REALITY.

In each case here the complement-containing statement (underlined) is added on to the end of a possible complete sentence. In (h) and (i) the complements (capitalised) are adjectives, in (j) it is a noun. Phrases starting with the preposition due to (considered in depth in 72. Causal Prepositions) seem to be a particularly common adjective complement in such situations. The spaces marked … show where one could add BE. To be linked grammatically with the main verb in the sentence, it needs either -ing or an earlier and (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop).

Like add-on adjectives, a statement with a verbless complement can only be used if it expresses something co-occurring with the main event in the sentence. Moreover, the starting noun in the statement, the subject of the omitted BE, must follow a possessive word like their or its which refers back to the main subject of the sentence, so that a close link is understood between the two pieces of information being given.

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5. “as ADJ a(n) NOUN as …”

This structure may be illustrated as follows:

(k) Electricity has as HIGH a VELOCITY as light.

The value of as … as … constructions can be read about within this blog in 149. Saying How Things are Similar. They typically contain an adjective or adverb after the first as. When there is an adjective, such as high above, the sentence also has to contain a partner noun (velocity). In (k), this noun is positioned inside the as … as phrase, but it can also be positioned outside, like this:

(l) Electricity has a VELOCITY (that is) as HIGH as light’s.

English language coursebooks rarely seem to mention the possibility shown by (k). Perhaps this is because it is not possible in some contexts, such as when the noun is the subject rather than object or complement of the verb, like this:

(m) *As HIGH a VELOCITY as light’s is possessed by electricity.

A further requirement for placing a noun inside as … as is that it must usually be countable with a or an. Uncountable nouns, like transport in the following, generally have to come in front:

(n) The town provides transport as cheap as any.

However, this constraint can be overcome by combining the uncountable noun with a suitable countable one + of, e.g. as cheap a form (or system) of transport as … . For a list of common countable partners of uncountable nouns, see 180. Nouns that Count the Uncountable.

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6. “if it was/were not for”

This expression helps to show an obstacle preventing something from happening or being done, like this:

(o) If it were not for the climate, more people would live in Greenland.

We understand here that the climate of Greenland prevents more people from living there. This is the same meaning that would be expressed by starting with but for (see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #1).

Two notable aspects of (o) are the possibility of were after the singular subject it, and the need for would before live. The reason for the first is that it is not the plural form of BE in the ordinary past simple tense, but instead a singular of a rare use called the “subjunctive”, which occurs only in very specific grammar structures like the one shown above. Subjunctive verbs in English do not have separate singular and plural forms (for other examples, see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #6, and 118. Problems with Conditional “If”, #6). The reason for would is that the meaning is “unreal” present, a consequence prevented from occurring in the present.

In (o), the climate (of Greenland) is a present-time obstacle. Past-time obstacles – no longer existing today – can also be referred to: you just replace were not with had not been. Prevented past-time consequences need would have, prevented current ones keep would:

(p) If it had not been for a meteor impact, the dinosaurs would have survived (would be living today).