229. Metaphorical Prepositions

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Most prepositions have at least one metaphorical extension of their familiar basic meaning

METAPHORICAL MEANING IN ENGLISH

Meaning called metaphorical (or “figurative”) is able to be expressed by many English expressions as an alternative to an older, more basic meaning from which it has developed. This development usually occurs as a result of language users gradually recognising that some abstract part of a basic meaning also exists in other things. For example, the metaphorical meaning of root (as in the root of the problem) is “cause” because that idea is also present in the same word’s basic meaning of “underground plant root”, the origin of plant growth.

Metaphorical meaning can exist in words, phrases and even sentences (for example proverbs). For an extensive list of phrase-based examples, see 241. Some Common Figurative Phrases. Readers whose vocabulary knowledge is still fairly restricted are likely to have a particular problem with metaphorical meaning, since they will often know only a basic meaning and will not always recognise when its corresponding metaphorical one is being used instead (see 7. Reading Obstacles 4).

Words with metaphorical meaning tend to belong to the four largest word classes: verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs. There are numerous examples in the above-mentioned reading post, as well as elsewhere within this blog in posts like 137. Words that Reflect English Culture and 278. Colours.

However, even prepositions sometimes have a metaphorical meaning, usually different from the one they acquire when they become adverbs (see 154. Lone Prepositions after BE). These meanings are often much less well known than the familiar ones, but this should not be a surprise when so many small words in English have the ability to be used in an unfamiliar way (see 256. Unusual Meanings of Familiar Words).

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METAPHORICAL MEANING AND PREPOSITION USE

The metaphorical meanings that I wish to discuss here are associated with a particular use of prepositions. There are three main preposition uses: as independent words, as part of a grammatical structure, and in collocations especially with a verb, noun or adjective.

Prepositions as independent words tend to be the first kind taught in English language courses. Many have as their fundamental meaning a position or direction in space or time (on the ground, into town, after breakfast), a feature reflected in the very name “preposition”. However, there are plenty that have a different fundamental meaning, including despite, worth and most multi-word prepositions, such as according to and in terms of (see 221. Multi-Word Prepositions).

The key feature of prepositions as independent words is that they are not determined by the choice of one or more neighbouring words: their own meaning is the main reason for their choice, and they can usually be replaced by plenty of other prepositions (to express different meanings) without making the sentence structurally different or ungrammatical. For example, in before the house has such obvious alternatives as by, under, above, beyond, through and out of. Despite this independence, however, these prepositions are like all others in needing to go, along with their partner noun, in specific parts of their sentence (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #2).

By contrast, the other two preposition uses are much more dictated by the choice of neighbouring words. Grammatical prepositions are needed in particular grammatical constructions – by after passive verbs for example. Collocational prepositions depend on the choice of individual words. For example the adjective prone usually needs to after it, while the verb cope needs a following with before any object noun. For fuller details of these categories, along with additional examples, see 111. Words with a Typical Preposition.

Metaphorical preposition meanings seem to be especially possessed by prepositions in the first of the three categories. They may be illustrated with the preposition under, which can mean not just “physically covered by” but also “hierarchically supervised by”, as when we say that employees work under a manager. I am not saying that metaphorical meanings are absent from the other categories: by after passive verbs and to after prone may each be metaphorically linked somehow with their independent meanings “next to” and “in the direction of”. However, metaphorical meanings in the first category seem particularly striking and common.

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PREPOSITIONS WITH A METAPHORICAL MEANING

The following uses are notable, though they are probably nowhere near all of the possibilities. Some also feature in 164. Fixed Prepositional Phrases, where they are more collocational.

ABOVE: (a) more important than (above all, above their own interests);  (b) not tempted by (+ immoral action) (above corruption, above exploiting the poor).

AFTER: (a) trying to get (after some food, after a good time, after more money);  (b) honouring through imitation (named after the founder, a song after Bob Dylan).

AROUND: approximately (+ quantity) (around 100 people, around 16.00 hours). See 95. Making Statements More Uncertain 1, #2.

BEHIND: (a) invisibly causing (people behind a crime, motives behind a behaviour, a theory behind a policy: see 306. Ways of Giving a Reason, #3);  (b) failing to match (behind schedule, behind the times, behind the leading team);  (c) supporting (+ person, idea or action) (behind a speaker, behind a proposal, behind a new start).

BELOW: less than (below par, below expectation, below normal, below the limit).

BENEATH: (a) hidden by (beneath a facial expression, beneath kind words);  (b) considered unworthy by (+ person) (beneath the manager – describing, for example, economy class travel).

BETWEEN: shared by or involving two people/things (divided between…, a disagreement between…).

BEYOND: (a) outside or disallowing (beyond doubt, beyond redemption, beyond reproach, beyond repair);  (b) better than (beyond expectation, beyond requirements).

OFF: (a) temporarily breaking the routine of (off duty, off food, off travelling);  (b) below the normal level (off one’s best, off colour).

ON: (a) dealing with (on a case, on a problem, on business);  (b) conveying information through (+ medium) (on TV, on the phone, on a map, on film, on a screen: see the end of 111. Words with a Typical Preposition).

ONTO: investigating after recent discovery (onto a disease source, onto criminal activity).

ON TOP OF: (a) successfully managing (+ demanding task or problem) (on top of one’s job, on top of life’s trials);  (b) in addition to (humiliation on top of defeat: see 81. Tricky Word Contrasts 2, #2).

OUT OF: (a) no longer occupying (+ correct place) (out of position, out of alignment, out of bounds, out of sorts, out of touch);  (b) caused by (+ emotion or knowledge state) (out of gratitude, out of ignorance: see 72. Causal Prepositions).

OVER: (a) more than (+ amount) (over six hours, over 1000 people, over the limit);  (b) caused by or concerning (+ source of argument) (arguing over money, disputes over procedures);  (c) recovered from (+ major event) (over the worst, over their illness, over a holiday);  (d) throughout (+ time period) (over a lifetime, over the course of many years).

THROUGH: using or with the help of (+ person/s) (through a friend, through local representatives).

UNDER: (a) hierarchically supervised by (under the command of…, under a manager);  (b) happening during the rule of (under the Republicans, under the … Dynasty);  (c) receiving/suffering (under pressure, under attack, under an illusion, under consideration, under the influence of …);  (d) according to (+ written rules) (under an agreement, under the regulations).

WITH (starting a sentence): because of (+ noun + describing word/s) (With the problem solved,… , With everyone in agreement,…: see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #7.

In addition to these single prepositions, there are some multi-word ones with a clearly metaphorical use. In tune with can refer not just to musical appropriacy (violins in tune with cellos) but also to many other kinds (decisions in tune with a policy, rules in tune with a culture). In line with can indicate a correspondence of not just one object or position with another but also of a behaviour or belief with a law, policy or expectation.

In light of means “helped by light from”, but is almost exclusively metaphorical (e.g. in light of events): to be non-metaphorical one would probably say in/by the light of instead (see 235. Special Uses of “the”, #8). Similarly, in the wake of rarely has its basic meaning of “in the white water behind (a ship)”, much more typically just meaning “after”; and owing to expresses not debt but a reason (see 246. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 2, #3).

Some of the above words retain a metaphorical use – sometimes the same one, sometimes different – when they are used alone, without a partner noun. For example, we can say that food is off, meaning that it has gone bad. In such cases the words are probably adverbs rather than prepositions. For a full discussion, see 154. Lone Prepositions after BE.

228. Exotic Grammar Structures 5

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Some English grammar structures are unlikely to be described in language coursebooks

THE NATURE OF “EXOTIC” STRUCTURES

English has plenty of grammar structures that are not common in language coursebooks, so that they could be called “exotic”. Some have not been clearly identified by grammarians, but many others are ignored by course designers because they are rare. There is usually insufficient space to cover every structure, and the more common ones are preferred in the belief that they will help learners the most in future communication.

However, structures that are rare in language-learning coursebooks can still be useful to know, especially for English users with a more advanced competence, who this blog targets. This is the thinking behind the present post. It considers six exotic structures. For more, see the list of other posts with a similar title in 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1.

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LIST OF STRUCTURES

1. “Some such…as…”

EXAMPLE
Construction stopped because of some such problem as landslides.

This structure combines unusual uses of both some and such as. Some has to be pronounced not /sәm/ but /sʌm/, like sum, and means “I do not know which” (see 256. Unusual Meanings of Familiar Words, #1). It hence suggests above that the exact problem stopping construction is unknown to the writer.

Grammatically, this kind of some is, like the more familiar kind, a “determiner” – usable in place of a(n) or the or similar, but not alongside them (see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”). Unlike the more familiar some, however, it can accompany a singular countable noun as well as a plural or uncountable one. Problem in the example above is singular and countable, with some replacing a.

Such as above is, as usual, linking a noun-form example (landslides) with its earlier-mentioned category (problem), but is positioned unusually. Normally, both of its words go between the category name and the example, but here only as is so positioned, such being placed first.

With regard to the meaning, such as is partly acting in its normal way and partly not. What is normal is that its lack of surrounding commas (always a feature in this use) helps us to understand which kind of problem is involved: the “landslide” kind (see 53. “As”, “Like” and “Such As”). What is abnormal is that the first noun (some…problem) is singular and specific (referring to one particular problem). Hence, some such problem as landslides means “a particular (unknown) problem of the landslide kind”. Logically, this problem might not have been a landslide at all – landslides only indicates the kind of problem.

In the normal use of such as, a singular first noun only refers to a general group. Thus, a problem such as landslides means the same as problems such as landslides, and includes landslides in the group it represents. A typical sentence might be:

(a) A problem such as landslides can be expensive.

In consequence, a problem such as landslides is not usable in the example sentence above, since that sentence is about a single problem, not a group.

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2. “It is not just…”

EXAMPLE
Football is too dominated by money. It is not just that the richest clubs are the most successful. Sponsors can dictate match times.

This use of it is not just introduces two reasons for a complaint. The complaint is usually stated first in one or more separate sentences (in the example above, too clearly shows a complaint). It is not just commonly follows in a new sentence, along with the first of the two reasons, which may be a noun or a statement with a verb. That is added in the latter case.

The second reason usually follows the first one in a new sentence, but can be kept in the same sentence by means of a semi-colon or colon. A colon is possible because the second reason helps to explain the first one as well as the complaint: it clarifies what is meant by not just (see 17. Colons versus Semi-Colons).

In addition to signalling two reasons, it is not just shows the first is not the writer’s main message, rather like not only used before but also (see 64. Double Conjunctions). A common way to make the first of multiple reasons part of the main message is with for one thing (see 306. Ways of Giving a Reason, #4). Sometimes, the reduced focus on the first reason is because the reader is expected to know it already – perhaps because it is obvious or widely known or recently mentioned; sometimes, the speaker just sees more importance in the second reason.

The whole combination of the complaint and its two reasons will often, but not always, constitute an argument. This is because complaints are often opinions, which make one half of arguments, and reasons can be supporting evidence, which makes the other (see 167. Ways of Arguing 1). If a complaint is a widely-accepted fact rather than an opinion, its use with it is not just will be an explanation rather than argument.

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3. Descriptive Starting Nouns

EXAMPLE
A tall animal, the giraffe can reach leaves high up in trees.

The underlined words here are two noun phrases, separated by a comma, that both refer to the same thing. This is a combination type considered in depth in these pages in 77. Apposition. What makes it “exotic” is that it differs from the three common forms of apposition that are described in that post (“idea + description”, “description + idea” and “idea + idea”).

The first of the two phrases in the example (a tall animal) is a description, while the second (the giraffe) is the idea it describes. This most closely matches the “description + idea” type of apposition. However, there are various differences. Firstly, the standard description + idea combination can occupy other positions in a statement than the start. If the apposition above is positioned later in its sentence (for example by starting Leaves high up in trees can be reached by…), it loses its special meaning.

Another difference is punctuation: there is a comma before the second noun phrase above but not after it. A standard description + idea needs either no punctuation at all or punctuation both before and after the second noun phrase:

(b) The food-carrying tube, the oesophagus, leads to the stomach.

This punctuation difference exists because in a standard description + idea the first noun phrase is grammatically more central than it is in sentences like the giraffe one. The single word that the verb agrees with in (b) is tube in the first noun phrase, whereas in the earlier sentence it is giraffe in the second.

Descriptive starting nouns are, with these special features, similar to starting adjective phrases that are separated from their noun by a comma (see 283. Lesser-Known Features of Adjectives, #2).

In terms of meaning, the apposition in both (a) and (b) assumes the addressee has not previously associated the descriptive phrase with the noun it is describing. Thus, someone that (a) was addressed to would not be expected to know already that the giraffe is a tall animal and someone hearing (b) would not be expected to know already that the food-carrying tube is called the oesophagus. To show an expectation that the link was familiar, (a) might start Being a tall animal, … .

The main meaning difference between the two types of apposition is that the kind in (a) marks the first of the two noun phrases as a reason for the main message of the sentence: we understand above that giraffes can reach high leaves because they are tall.

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4. “Come NOUN or NOUN”

EXAMPLE
Come floods or drought, food production must be maintained.

This structure usually forms an adverb-like phrase at the start or end of a sentence. Come is a verb in the rare “subjunctive” form, and the subsequent words are its subject. The meaning is It does not matter if there are…, (see 199. Importance and Unimportance) or Whether there are…, (see “Usage like Conditional if” in 99. Meanings of “whether…or…). There is thus a denial that either of the two noun ideas (floods, drought) has any influence on the main event expressed by the sentence.

The two nouns after come will usually represent opposite ideas. Some are so common that the whole come phrase constitutes a word partnership or “collocation”. Well-known ones are come rain or shine (shine being an abbreviation of sunshine found only in this expression) and the more metaphorical come hell or high water (see 241 Some Common Figurative Phrases, #3).

An alternative to come before the two nouns is the similarly subjunctive be there…, a close relation to be it/they…or… (considered in 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #6). An alternative to the two nouns after come… is …what may (see 290. Ways of Using COME, #16).

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5. Starting Adjective / Adverb + “as”

EXAMPLE
Fast as they are, cheetahs often lose their prey.

As here is a conjunction similar in meaning to although but unable to occupy the typical starting position of conjunctions (see 25. Conjunction Positioning): if it does, it means “because” instead. Although and though are sometimes found in the same position (see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #5). The positioning gives special focus to the adjective or adverb.

The word before this use of as must be an adjective, participle or adverb whose meaning contrasts with the main information in the rest of the sentence (compare fast with lose their prey above). A common adverb here is much (see 311. Exotic Grammar Structures 9, #4). Without such a contrast, as remains possible, but again means “because”, and could start the sentence. This would happen, for example, if lose above was replaced by catch.

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6. Example-Showing “might”

EXAMPLE
Most animals can protect themselves. They might possess a sting, or be a fast runner.

Examples are randomly-chosen members of a general category, mentioned in order to clarify or justify a statement involving it (see 1. Simple-Example-Giving). The above sentence says possessing a sting and being a fast runner belong to the category of self-protection. We know they are not all of this idea because the verbs include might.

Might can exemplify because it usually expresses the fundamental example quality of “less than all”. In predictions, for example, it suggests around a 30% likelihood (see 96. Avoiding Untruths 2).

However, might cannot express any example. It seems to need a pronoun subject (they above) representing a just-named general category (most animals). Moreover, the examples must exist in some but not all members of the category. For example, a sting is not inevitable in most animals. In the following, this condition is not met and might is not possible:

(c) Oxygen has some notable properties. For example, it facilitates combustion.

The underlined example here is found always, not sometimes, among the properties of oxygen. Therefore, for example is not replaceable by might.