282. Features of History Writing

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Some of the language of history writing needs careful handling

ROLE AND NATURE OF HISTORY WRITING

It is not just historians who write about history. Every academic subject and every business decision is based on a history that sometimes needs to be told for such reasons as assisting understanding or winning over sceptics.

Most of the language of history writing is also common in at least some other types of writing. For example, one of the most obvious linguistic features, past tense verbs, occurs widely in written fiction, jokes, journalism and academic literature surveys (see 76. Tenses of Citation Verbs). Sequence connectors like afterwards, next, then and eventually are also common in descriptions of future sequences and of timeless ones like instructions and processes (see 210. Process Descriptions).

Nevertheless, there are items of grammar and vocabulary that seem to be more associated with history writing than any other type. In this post I wish to identify some of these, and also to highlight some of the less history-specific items that I think can prove troublesome in history writing.

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VERB USE

1. Past Perfect Tense

This tense (with had) is no more specific to history writing than the past simple is, but I mention it here because its function is often incorrectly believed to be just to indicate a very distant past time. Its primary role is actually to indicate an earlier past time than the one that a description is focussed on (see 171. Aspects of the Past Perfect Tense).

One other notable use of this tense in history writing is with event verbs accompanying already. These need the past perfect tense instead of the past simple as a reflection of their need in present-time descriptions (outside American English) for the present perfect has/have tense.

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2. Future in the Past

This kind of future resembles the past perfect in indicating an event or situation outside the focus period – but later rather than earlier. Two major types are destinies and arrangements. A destiny is someone’s definite future, arranged or not; an arrangement is someone’s planned future, and may not actually have occurred.

Both of these types are expressed with a base-form verb after either would or was/were to (see 119. BE before a “to” Verb, #4 and #8). The correct interpretation is usually indicated by the surrounding text. Without this, the meaning can be unclear:

(a) Octavian was to become the Emperor Augustus.

One way of unambiguously indicating a destiny is by adding about between was/were and to, though this only indicates imminent destinies, and with a later when it can imply non-fulfilment (see 269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #6). Negative destinies are also shown with never to after either BE or a possible complete about to sentence (see 269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #2).

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3. “to” and “when” + Subsequent Event

Like other types of multi-event description, the historical kind has numerous ways of introducing a new event without overusing and. Here is how to and when can achieve this:

(b) The police arrived at the scene to find a shocking sight.

(c) The ship was running out of supplies, when land was spotted.

There are restrictions on both of these uses. For details see 246. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 2, #5 and 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #4.

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4. “Seems / Appears to Have”

Because the past is not always fully documented, histories are often forced to describe it with uncertainty language. Very useful in this respect are the verbs SEEM and APPEAR. Past-time verbs typically follow them in the have infinitive form, e.g. …seems to have failed (see the discussion of sentence #f in 96. Making Statements More Uncertain 2). An alternative is may have.

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CONNECTORS

Connectors are adverb-like expressions that show how the meaning of their sentence is related to that of one normally occurring before (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors). Connectors in historical writing resemble those in process descriptions, but are not completely the same.

5. Sequence Connectors

Sequence connectors indicate the timing of an event or situation relative to one mentioned in the sentence(s) before. They can mark the timing of their own event as earlier, simultaneous or later. This blog has fairly comprehensive lists of sequence connectors in 227. Time Adverbs and 259. Multi-Word Connectors.

Two observations in the latter post are the frequency with which this appears in multi-word connectors, and its ability to be replaced by that. The usual reason for preferring that is to highlight distance (see 234. Adjective and Pronoun Uses of “that”). History writers are often motivated to use that because they see past events as distant in time. Common sequence connectors containing it include after that, at that point, at that time, before that and following that. One expression where that is perhaps less likely is during this time.

There is also a fairly typical historical sequence connector – with that – that has no this alternative. It indicates abruptness of a final event in a sequence:

(d) Caesar announced the new procedures. With that, he turned and strode out.

Another connector with a similar use is Thereupon.

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6. Result Connectors

Connectors of this kind mark the event or situation in their sentence as not just later than one mentioned in the sentence(s) before, but also caused by it. Their frequency in history writing is not surprising given the interest of historians in causal connections.

Common result connecters in history writing include as a result, at that, consequently, in consequence, in turn and thus (see 32. Expressing Consequences). Resultant events and situations seem less likely to be signalled with hence, therefore or that is why, as these are more indicative of logical conclusions (see 20. Problem Connectors, #4 and #5).

In turn introduces a logical consequence:

(e) Women gained greater financial independence. This in turn increased the importance of companionship within marriage.

For an explanation of at that, see 234. Adjective and Pronoun Uses of “that”, #1.

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FURTHER ADVERB USES

7. “Once”

This multi-use word is sometimes a conjunction like when and sometimes an adverb with various meanings. One familiar adverb meaning emphasises non-repetition, contrasting with twice, three times etc. Alternatively, adverbial once may just mean in the past, without confirming repetition, or one time or on one occasion, definitely indicating repetition. To guard against misunderstanding, the alternative expressions may sometimes be advisable. This meaning variability of once reflects that of one (see 263. Uses of “One” and “Ones”, #3).

The word occasion sometimes replaces other numerical frequency words (twice, three times etc.), even though they are not ambiguous in the same way. The typical use is after on and a number word, e.g. on two occasions (see 236. Tricky Word Contrasts 9, #3).

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8. “Then”

This word can indicate not just a later occurrence but also a concurrent one. To do so, its partner verb must usually express either a situation or an extended occurrence (see 225. Simultaneous Occurrence, #3). In these circumstances, then is less likely to start its sentence:

(f) Faraday obsessively studied electromagnetism. He was then (= at that time) employed at the Royal Institution.

Quite often in history writing, then with this meaning goes between two noun expressions, the second of which is a description of the first see 77. Apposition (Pairing of Same-Meaning Nouns), #1). For example, (f) could begin Faraday, then an employee… .

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9. Relative Past Times

Time expressions relating to the present, such as last year or in three days’ time, are of course not usable in descriptions of the past. Here are some key correspondences:

yesterday = the day before, the previous day
today = that day
tomorrow = the day after, the following day
this Monday/ week etc. = that… etc.
last Monday/ week etc. = the previous…, the…before
next Monday/ week etc. = the next/ the following…, the…after
The coming Monday etc. = the following…
in …s’ time = …later (see 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #1).
…ago = …previously
since… = from… (see 258. Saying How Long Something Lasts, #2)

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10. “Ever”

Ever after a superlative adjective or adverb means “compared to all other times” (see 272. Uses of “Ever”, #3):

(g) Airlines this year report the most flights ever.

Care is needed with past tense verbs (Airlines reported…) because ever would include times after their action as well as before. To make a comparison only with preceding times, past tense verbs need something like so far, up to that point or in living memory.

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11. Judgement Adverbs

Historians like to comment on behaviour they are reporting, often because they have insight from knowing what happened afterwards. One useful tool is a starting “judgement” adverb, especially the “subject-focussed” kind (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs, #3):

(h) Cunningly, Caesar held his soldiers back.

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12. “If only…”

This typical indicator of personal wishes is sometimes used by historians to express a widely-shared regret about something in the past (see 251. The Grammar of “Only”, #1).

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OTHER OPTIONS

13. Indirect Speech

Speech by characters in a historical text is probably less able than that in fictional narrative and even journalism to have direct form. This is partly because historians are not as free as fiction writers to invent “actual” words, and are less likely than journalists to have heard and remembered the speech they report.

Even when historians do know the actual wording that they are reporting, they still need to consider the general convention within expository writing of not using direct speech unless there is something striking about it (see 127. When to Use Indirect Speech). Direct speech that does appear in historical writing will often have been copied from a historical source.

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14. Statement-Referring “which”

This kind of which is another useful means of avoiding and:

(i) Octavian defeated his enemies in battle, which enabled him to become Roman Emperor.

Which here refers to what Octavian did, not battle. For a full analysis, see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses, #2.

Like relative pronouns in general, which in this use often follows a preposition instead of being the subject or object of the subsequent verb (enabled above). In historical writing, typical combinations include after which, as a result of which, at which, before which, despite which and upon which. An alternative to the last is whereupon.

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15. Dates

Historical dates can be tricky:

–  British English usually names the date of a single day differently in speech and writing. Speech typically includes the…of… (the 15^th of March), while writing typically excludes it (15^th March). American English reverses the order (March 15^th), sometimes with the in between. For more, see 67. Numbers in Spoken English.

– Decade names often have the first year inside the…s (e.g. the 1990s). It is important to include the (see 165. Confusions of Similar Structures 2, #1).

– In recent years, some historians have abandoned the abbreviations BC and AD when distinguishing years before and after the time of Christ, replacing them with BCE and CE (see 130. Formal Abbreviations, final section).

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16. Historical Division Nouns

Historians commonly create past time divisions through names like Roman times and The Medieval Period. The nouns – typically countable – include age(s), epoch, era, period and time(s) (see the end of 196. Saying What is inside Things).

277. Advantages and Disadvantages

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Descriptions of advantages & disadvantages have recognisable linguistic features, though most are optional

LINGUISTIC FEATURES

Saying what is good and/or bad about something is not difficult in English. However, doing it in a sophisticated and varied way can be a greater challenge, for the obvious reason that that needs a wider, more “advanced” knowledge of the language. It is this need that is the focus here. The aims are to present at least some linguistic possibilities that readers might find new, and to reduce the likelihood of grammar and vocabulary errors associated with this kind of writing.

Descriptions of advantages and disadvantages may be brief, accomplished in as little as a single sentence, or spread out over multiple sentences. It is the latter kind that is the focus here. For some advice on the briefer kind, see 51. Making Concessions with “May”,  168. Ways of Arguing 2 and 159. Exotic Grammar Structures 2, #2.

One question raised by multi-sentence description of advantages and disadvantages – deciding when to mention each particular one – is considered elsewhere in this blog in 222. Information Orders in Texts, #8. Two needs of a more linguistic nature are firstly to find different ways of saying the same kind of thing so as not to sound monotonous, and secondly to use expressions clarifying links between the different points made.

These two needs are the main concern here. Relevant language is first illustrated in a model paragraph and then analysed more closely, in the same way as in other Guinlist posts about multi-sentence information (cf. 115. Surveying Numerical Data and 210. Process Descriptions).

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MODEL PARAGRAPH

Advantages and disadvantages are typically considered in order to assist a choice (see 94. Essay Instruction Words). The choice may be between adopting and not adopting one particular thing, or between various competing alternatives such as test procedures or consumer products.

In the former case it is possible just to describe the advantages and disadvantages of the candidate for adoption, without mentioning the alternative of continuing without it. The latter case, however, necessitates mentioning each candidate’s advantages and disadvantages. It is consequently more complicated, but perhaps more typical. As a result, it is the kind of description illustrated below.

This description considers advantages and disadvantages of different transport types. It is incomplete in that no choice is actually made between the options – in a real situation that might be in the next paragraph (introduced by on balance or overall), along with a justification. The numbers in the description are to assist sentence referencing in the subsequent discussion.

Travelling in Cities

(1) There are six main ways of travelling in cities. (2) The simplest is on foot. (3) This is beneficial in numerous respects, such as its very low cost, provision of exercise, lack of stress, opportunities for reflexion, and very reliable journey time. (4) The main problem with walking, of course, is the time and energy that it takes, although if traffic is heavy the time will not be very much greater than that taken by supposedly faster transport modes. (5) The second way of travelling is by bicycle. (6) This has similar advantages to walking, and is of course quicker; but a major drawback is the serious danger of being hit by a motor vehicle and suffering personal injury or damage to the bicycle, and there is also a risk of unexpected delay due to a puncture. (7) Thirdly one can travel by motor cycle or private car. (8) Provided the traffic is not too dense, this is likely to be the quickest way of travelling.  (9) It is problematic, though, in that fuel and maintenance are relatively expensive, journey times (which depend on traffic) are unreliable, concentration is necessary while driving, and there is a need to park at both ends of the journey. (10) Fourthly, there is the possibility of travelling by private hire taxi. (11) The benefits are similar to those of journeying by private car. Moreover, parking is not a problem, and the stress of driving can be left to somebody else. (12) However, this form of travel has the major disadvantage of being probably the costliest of all, and it can sometimes be difficult to find. (13) The fifth possibility is by bus or shared taxi. (14) This is slower than other forms of motorised road transport, but it is cheaper, it may be quicker than bicycle travel (provided the number and length of stops are limited), and it again allows attention to be given to other things than driving. (15) Finally, there are railways. These are a relatively cheap and environmentally friendly form of motorised transport, and they stand out for speed and lack of congestion. (16) On the other hand, they are rarely “door-to-door”, necessitating further journeys to and from stations, and trains are notorious for unreliability and cancellations.

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ANALYSIS OF THE PARAGRAPH

The organization of the paragraph is fairly typical. Each option is considered in turn and in full, with its advantages listed together before its disadvantages – not alternating with them. The following linguistic features are notable:

1. List Language

The amount of information about each transport option means that the list of six occupies multiple sentences rather than just one. There is a consequent need for the kind of listing language that this blog considers in depth in 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists. Notable features are the typical introductory There are… sentence (with a following full stop, not colon), a superlative adjective (the simplest) introducing the first option, and number words (the second, thirdly etc.) before the others.

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2. Comparison Language

To compare is to note similarities and differences. Differences in particular are implicit in the idea of advantages and disadvantages, and hence likely in their descriptions. One common means of naming differences is comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs, or their equivalents. Examples in the paragraph are simplest (sentence 2), greater and faster (S4), quicker (S6), quickest (S8), relatively expensive (S9), the costliest (S12), slower, cheaper and quicker (S14), and relatively cheap and … friendly (S15).

Although similarities are less likely to be indicated in a description of advantages and disadvantages, they do still sometimes appear, particularly when multiple options are being considered, as above. Examples are in S6 (similar advantages), S11 (are similar) and S14 (again allows). All of these make a comparison with a previously-mentioned option rather than a later one – probably a normal requirement.

Common similarity and difference indicators that are not illustrated above are the preposition like (like X, Y… or Y is like X) and its opposite unlike. For details of these and other similarity and difference expressions, see 149. Saying How Things are Similar and 216. Indicating Differences.

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3. Continuation and Switch Expressions

Each advantage description above is followed by either a new advantage (= continuation) or a disadvantage (= switch). There are no switches from disadvantages to advantages, but this does happen sometimes elsewhere.

Continuation language may be a list comma, signalling that the next (dis)advantage is not the last (cf. cost in S3 and maintenance in S9); or a conjunction (usually and or plus – see 236. Tricky Word Contrasts 9, #7); or and + connector (e.g. and…also in S6); or a separate-sentence link expression – either a connector like moreover in S11 or a connector synonym like another (+ noun meaning “[dis]advantage”) (see 112. Synonyms of Connectors). Other possible continuation connectors are furthermore, additionally, in addition and lastly.

Switch expressions similarly may or may not need a new sentence. The usual one that does not is but (S6 and S14). In new sentences, common connectors are synonyms of but, particularly however (S12), on the other hand (S16), though (S9), yet and on the plus/negative side (see 259. Multi-Word Connectors). A frequent alternative to a switch connector is to start the switch sentence with (dis)advantage(s) or similar, often combined with main or major (cf. S4 and S6).

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4. Nouns Meaning “(Dis)Advantages”

Synonyms of advantages include attractions, benefits (S11), merits, pluses, positive features and strengths, plus the less formal pros, points for and points in favour. Note also not a problem in S11. Benefits often follows the verb BRING (see 273. Verb-Object Collocations). Points is sometimes replaced by arguments (normally a word meaning both an opinion and supporting points: see 167. Ways of Arguing 1). Quite often, points for and arguments for have no following noun.

Synonyms of disadvantages include difficulties, downsides, drawbacks (S6), issues, minuses, negative features, problems, shortcomings, snags and weaknesses, plus the less formal cons and arguments/ points against.

All these nouns can precede detail of either the (dis)advantage or its possessor. The former typically needs of + noun / -ing verb (e.g. the disadvantage of cost: see S12 and 160. Uses of “of”, #4), or a that statement (see the end of 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”). The latter also often involves of (e.g. the disadvantage of walking), though difficulty, issue, problem and snag prefer with (see S4 and 134. Words with a Variable Preposition, #2), while (dis)advantage, benefit and value have in when following there are (see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences, #6).

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5. Adjectives

Most of the advantage adjectives above are the comparative and superlative forms listed in #2 above. I found that other adjectives – related to the positive nouns in #4 – were surprisingly difficult to include, only managing beneficial in S3. Alternatives include attractive, desirable and outstanding. The associated advantage can be named after all of these with in + noun / -ing or in that…, like after comparative adjectives, e.g. beneficial in numerous respects in S3 (see 82. Common Errors in Making Comparisons, #7).

One further advantage adjective is redeeming. It must come after naming of disadvantages because it means not just “beneficial”, but also “compensating (slightly) for the disadvantages” – a metaphorical extension of the religious idea of salvation from suffering (see 137. Words that Reflect English Culture, #5). Its partner noun is usually characteristic, feature or quality, e.g. one redeeming feature is….

Two other positive adjectives, advantageous and preferable, seem more likely to appear after all of the alternatives have been considered, when a particular choice is being recommended.

On the other hand, the negative adjective disadvantageous seems more usable in the main analysis, as are disappointing, poor, problematic, undesirable and weak. After these, the disadvantage is again sometimes stated with in or in that (cf. problematic in S9).

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6. Verbs

The most basic verb for expressing the idea of “(dis)advantage” is HAVE, often followed by the (dis)advantage of/that…, as in S12. Synonyms of HAVE, such as CONTAIN, are unlikely (see 170. Logical Errors in Written English, example #d).

Most other verbs have no object noun. COMPARE, PERFORM and SCORE can combine with well, poorly or (un)favourably (plus on… to show the [dis]advantage). Other advantage verbs include EXCEL (IN), MEET EXPECTATIONS, STAND OUT (FOR) (S15) and SUCCEED (IN). Other disadvantage verbs include COME UP SHORT (ON), DISAPPOINT, FAIL and FALL DOWN (ON).

Also useful, especially when making a final overall judgement, is OUTWEIGH (= “be more valuable than”). The usual format is X outweighs Y, X being a particular advantage, Y a disadvantage (see 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #8).

260. Formal Written Uses of “Thing”

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The everyday word “thing” has various acceptable uses in formal writing

USABILITY OF “THING” IN FORMAL CONTEXTS

It is easy to believe that the noun thing is not suitable in formal writing. If it is not considered too vague – an easy escape from the effort of trying to find a more descriptive word – it can seem very informal, more associated with spoken than written English.

It is certainly true that spoken English has some very informal uses of thing that would be unlikely to occur in formal writing. It can, for example, follow an adjective to express an emotion about something, e.g. stupid thing! (showing anger), or even about someone, e.g. you poor thing (showing sympathy). The common introductory phrase The thing is, … directs attention to a central problem after preliminary discussion related to it. Things often means “personal possessions”.

Yet a quick computer search of formal writing extracts shows that thing is surprisingly common there too. The uses are not unique to this kind of English, but seem to mostly form a subset of those in spoken English. They again tend to do more than just refer to something whose exact name is unknown or forgotten. Moreover, a fair number are similarly able to occur in various fairly fixed and idiomatic phrases. They are thus very deserving of a post in this blog.

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SPECIAL SITUATIONS INVOLVING “THING”

Outside of fixed phrases, thing has a variety of uses.

1. Placing an Adjective in a Noun Position

(a) The important thing is to note the smell.

In some other languages, the underlined subject of is here could be expressed with just an adjective after a word meaning “the” (*The important is…). English does sometimes allow lone adjectives after the, but it is quite rare. Thing is one of various nouns that are commonly combined with an adjective to make it usable in a noun position. Other nouns – if the meaning so requires – include part (less formally, bit), person and point (see the end of 102. Adjectives with no Noun 2: Thing-Naming). One could also use what – what is (ADJ) is… – but a noun like thing prevents repetition of is.

Another way thing combines with adjectives is after BE or similar in place of the same adjective by itself, e.g. …is a good thing instead of …is good. This modification is grammatically possible because the position after verbs like BE – the so-called “complement” one – allows both noun and adjective expressions (see 220. Features of Complements).

The adjectives used with a…thing in the complement position often seem to represent a permanent rather than temporary quality. As a result, they seem less likely to be describing the speaker just at the time of speaking: whereas …is good implies “good for me now”, …is a good thing implies “inherently good”. Common alternatives to good include amazing, bad, different, frightening, interesting, puzzling, real, strange, surprising, terrible, the same and useful.

Not every noun is describable as a … thing in this way. There is a need for the noun’s meaning to be conceivable as a “thing”. This rules out such noun meanings as humans (where a possible replacement for thing is often person), materials (= stuff), locations (= place), and dates (= time). However, there are many abstract nouns that can be described as a…thing, such as justice or life.

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2. Replacing Something, Anything, Everything or Nothing

One situation where thing might be preferred to one of these words is when it has a special meaning:

(b) Some thing in the water is causing illness.

Here, something would just mean “an unidentified entity”, but separating the two words leaves some still meaning “unidentified” (see 256. Unusual Meanings of Familiar Words, # 1), but makes thing mean “nasty entity”. For more examples like this, see the end of 26. One Word or Two?

Alternatively, using thing by itself often enables something to be said about the “thing” in question that could not be said if it was combined with some- etc.:

(c) One further thing can be said about efforts to find a vaccine.

(d) No single thing explains why some people learn languages better than others.

In (c), thing has the ability that something lacks to link with one in order either to emphasize “not more than one” or to signal that more detail follows (see 263. Uses of “One” and “Ones”). In (d), no…thing has the ability that nothing lacks to link with single meaning “lone”. Single thing is also common after every to emphasize “without exception”.

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3. Replacing Forward-Looking “What”

When the pronoun what is not a question word, it means “the thing which”. One of its uses is at the start of a sentence, representing an idea at the end that is being highlighted as the main information being conveyed (see 145. Highlighting with “What” Sentences):

(e) What (= The thing which) the world does not need is an economic crisis.

It is the fact that what includes the idea of “thing” in its meaning that again enables thing (+ visible or understood which) to be used instead.

When thing (which) is preferred to what, a major reason seems again to be a need to add description that could not grammatically accompany what. For example, the one thing (which) in (e) would emphasise the extreme nature of an economic crisis, a thing (which) would signal the existence of other “things”, and one thing (which) would imply that an economic crisis was being mentioned as a part of a list (see 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists).

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4. Enabling Repetition of Something

In the following, thing is the best means of repeating something:

(e) If something is causing discomfort, and if that exact thing is taking time to be identified, then pain relief can be administered.

Here, many writers would feel unhappy about saying something again, but would find the standard alternative – the pronoun it – difficult to use because of the need to combine it with exact. The problem is overcome by saying that…thing instead.

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FIXED EXPRESSIONS CONTAINING “THING”

The dividing line between likely in formal writing and unlikely can sometimes be uncertain. One fixed expression that I would definitely rule out is things like that. Slightly more formal is things of that kind, but more formal still is suchlike.

Fixed thing expressions that seem fairly possible in formal writing include the following:

5. for one thing

This usually acts as a “connector” (see 259. Multi-Word Connectors). In other words, it shows how its sentence is related logically to the surrounding ones. The relation it shows is “reason for what has just been said”. It is thus a synonym of this is because, but what distinguishes it is a suggested existence of other reasons, which may or may not also be given (see 306. Ways of Giving a Reason, #4). Any that do follow are often introduced by for another (thing).

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6. …is the real thing

This says something is not a fake or copy. An occasional more formal equivalent is …is the genuine article.

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7. to make things worse

This is usually added parenthetically to a sentence near its start to warn that a bad addition to a bad situation is going to be mentioned. Things is similar in meaning to matters, and is sometimes replaced by it. For more on parenthetical to verbs, see the end of 183. Statements between Commas.

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8. …is a thing of the past

This means “does not exist now” or “is out of date”. Thing is pronoun-like, just representing the subject of is, while of the past has an adjective-like role. A few other nouns can replace the past, such as beauty and wonder.

 

9. no such thing

This is a more emphatic way of saying nothing of that kind. A common use is after there is… to deny the existence of something represented by a neighbouring noun. If this noun is mentioned next, there is normally as in between:

(f) There is no such thing as a unicorn.

Another common use is as the object of DO. This both expresses a refusal and implies that the refused request is outrageous.

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10. all things considered

This is a sentence-spanning adverbial expression similar in meaning to on balance. In other words, it says that an accompanying assertion is being made after weighing up multiple points supporting and opposing it:

(g) All things considered, the world is a better place now than 100 years ago.

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11. it is a good thing (that)…

This expression might be used as follows:

(h) It is a good thing that the company kept supplies in reserve.

The message in such sentences is more than just that something is (or was) good: usually the reason why will be apparent too, either through the situation where the words are uttered or through some subsequent explanatory words like …because demand is heavier than expected.

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12. thing(s) to do

Thing(s) is often used before the to (infinitive) form of DO and certain other common verbs (ASK, CONSIDER, HAVE, KNOW, SEE). Like most other nouns in this position, it is usually the object of the to verb, and this verb carries the idea of “can” or “must” (see 239. Nouns Combined with a “to” Verb).

The plural things usually implies a list. Perhaps a reason for using it rather than a more precise word like jobs or points is that some lists are too varied to fit exactly under headings like these. The singular thing often follows a superlative adjective like the best, the easiest, the main or the quickest.

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13. things are better if/when…

In this use, things means “the situation”. Better is not the only possible comparative adjective, common alternatives being different, easier and worse.

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14. of all things

This adjectival phrase often expresses surprise:

(i) Insulation of some Arctic houses is with ice of all things.

Here, of all things directly follows the noun it describes (ice). It could also start the sentence (with a following comma).

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15. is one thing, but…

This combination says that the idea after but is much more problematic than the one before:

(j) Going to the moon is one thing, but Mars is something else.

The second half of such sentences tends to be formulaic. Alternatives to the underlined words include …is quite another and …requires much more.

259. Multi-Word Connectors

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Many fixed phrases can show a meaning link between two sentences

MULTI-WORD CONNECTORS IN ENGLISH

Connectors are adverb-like expressions that show how the meaning of their sentence is related to that of one normally placed before (see 18. Relations between Sentences). Common examples are therefore, however and otherwise. A typical use is:

(a) Manufacturers must invest in new equipment. Otherwise, they will lose custom.

Here, otherwise says its sentence is naming the outcome of not acting in the way described in the sentence before (invest in new equipment). In other words, it signals a kind of “opposite consequence”.

Connector meanings are often able to be expressed by a conjunction instead – e.g. or in (a) – but in one sentence rather than two (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors). The whole-sentence focus of connectors makes them especially useful for clarifying overall paragraph structure (see 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists,  167. Ways of Arguing 1 and 210. Process Descriptions).

Connectors have to be distinguished from other kinds of sentence-focussed adverb. In the following, technically starts its sentence in the same way as otherwise above, but it does not show a link with an external statement:

(b) Technically, “the” is not an adjective.

Other adverbs usable like this this include surprisingly and naturally. For an extensive list and classification, see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs.

Confusingly, there are also some expressions that sometimes act as a connector and sometimes do not. Generally is a connector when accompanying a generalisation based on preceding specific instances, but not when merely signalling that the statement after it is a general one. Sometimes can have the connector meaning of “some of these (just-mentioned) times” but also the non-connector one of “some of all possible times”.

Most grammarians and English coursebook writers include among their connector examples some multi-word expressions like for example, that is to say and as a result. This is not such a revolutionary thing to do, since multi-word prepositions and conjunctions are also recognised (see 221. Multi-Word Prepositions and 230. Multi-Word Conjunctions). A key requirement for recognising a group of words as a multi-word version of any of these word types is the typicality of their combination: it must be sufficient for the expression as a whole to be considered a standard word partnership, or “collocation”.

A slight problem with such a criterion is its subjectivity, since there are some connector-like word combinations about which people’s judgements might vary. For example, (a) above would say the same thing if otherwise was replaced by if this does not happen, but would that still be a connector? It cannot be rejected because it comprises a conjunction (if) with a subject and verb, since that is also a feature of some combinations that most analysts do accept as connectors, like that is to say (that). On the other hand, it cannot be accepted as a connector on the grounds that it has the same effect, since English has numerous non-adverbial (and therefore non-connector) expressions that do that (see 112. Synonyms of Connectors).

Despite such problems, multi-word connectors still appear to be as surprisingly numerous as multi-word prepositions and conjunctions, and hence deserving of a place in this blog. My aim here is to illustrate, explain and analyse the wide variety of phrases that are always or sometimes connectors, especially those that seem likely to appear in formal writing.

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SURVEY OF POSSIBILITIES

Multi-word connectors do not all have the same grammatical form. The following list is organised around the major differences. Highlighted items indicate a link to a Guinlist post containing usage information.

1. Preposition Phrases

Any relevant combination beginning with a preposition falls into this group. Considering that preposition phrases are a major alternative to adverbs in general in English (see 85. Preposition Phrases and Corresponding Adverbs), it is not surprising that they are a sizeable category of multi-word connectors. Examples are:

above all, after all, after a while, after some time, after that, among these, as a conclusion, as a matter of fact, as a/(the) result, as such, at any rate, at last, at least, at once, at that moment/ point, at that time, at the same time, at this, before this, besides this, by contrast, by the way, despite that, during this process, during this time/ period, for all that, for example, for instance, for one thing, for this reason, in addition, in any case, in any event, in a similar vein, in contrast, in a similar way, in comparison, in conclusion, in consequence, in general, in other words, in particular, in reality, in short, in sum, in summary, in that case, in the end, in the event, in the first place, in the meantime, in the process, in the same way, in this respect, in time, in turn, in view of this, of course, on the contrary, on the one hand, on the other hand, on the plus side, on top of that, with that

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2. Verbs with a Joining Device

“Joining device” is my term for any linguistic option that allows a verb to exist in a sentence with another one. It includes conjunctions, relative pronouns, relative adverbs, question words, semi-colons, participle endings and the to form of verbs (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). In the following list, joining devices are underlined:

be that as it may, following (on from) this, this is because, that is to say (that), that is why, that said, to continue, to cut a long story short, to finish, to repeat, to resume, to start with, what is more

Borderline combinations of this kind perhaps include if this does not happen and the reason is that.

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3. Adverb-Based Phrases

Connectors in this category contain neither a preposition nor a verb but normally have an identifiable central noun or adverb:

all the while, all this time, even so, better (or worse) still, first and foremost, first of all, last but not least, last of all, later on, more accurately, more precisely, more specifically, most of all, then again, the whole time

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4. Other

all in all, all the same, if not, if so, that is

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OBSERVATIONS

It is obvious above that most multi-word connectors are preposition phrases. Within these, that is quite common after the preposition. In many cases, this is an alternative, the difference usually being one of historical or psychological “distance” (see 234. Adjective and Pronoun Uses of “that”).

The variety of prepositions usable with that/this raises the question of whether any preposition can form a connector with these words. I suspect that many prepositions can indeed make a connector-like link in this way, but many of the combinations would have to be ruled out as “proper” connectors because they are not common. For example, under that seems a very unlikely but still possible way of showing a meaning link between sentences. Combinations with like seem more connector-like, but perhaps should be considered borderline rather than definite connectors.

In the second category, infinitive verbs (with to) are as common, it will be seen, as that in the first. This is hardly surprising: just as this and that are the most natural means of representing a previous statement, so verbs are a natural means of naming a link with one, and the infinitive form is a very common way of fitting any kind of text-describing verb into a sentence (see the end of 183. Statements between Commas).

Another feature that infinitives share with that is the ability to make connector-like phrases that are quite novel and hence not very fixed, such as to elaborate, to say why and to give another example. Once again, the lack of fixedness of such phrases can rule them out as true connectors.

Note, finally, that some of the phrases above have a non-connector use – typically preposition-like – as well as their connector one. They include for example (illustrated in detail elsewhere in this blog in 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #4), in other words, in particular, more accurately and that is to say.

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NOTABLE MEANINGS

The overall number of multi-word connectors makes it impractical for all of their meanings and uses to be elaborated here. However, there are some that are not considered elsewhere in this blog but perhaps merit special attention. Two – as such and more so – have a use in some regional varieties of English that is not found in Standard English.

The non-standard use of as such is as an exact equivalent of therefore. In Standard English, as such only sometimes equates to therefore. Here is a sentence where both are possible:

(c) Reptiles cannot generate much body heat of their own. As such (or Therefore), they need regular exposure to the heat of the sun.

One way to check whether as such is possible is to see whether the sentence still sounds logical with as replaced by its synonym being. This is the case in (c), but would not be if the underlined words were changed to lose heat at night. Two conditions make both as and being possible. One is that the subject of the verb in the second sentence (they) should mean the same as the subject of the verb in the first (reptiles). The other is that the first sentence should describe a state rather than action.

The non-standard use of more so is as a connector meaning moreover. In Standard English, more so is not a connector at all, but a way to express the comparative meaning of an already-mentioned adjective or manner adverb without repetition. So refers to the adjective or adverb rather as pronouns refer to a preceding noun:

(d) The weather is hot all year but (is) more so in February.

(e) Farmers work hard all year but more so at harvest time.

In (d), so refers to the earlier adjective hot, thus making more so an adjective phrase meaning “hotter”. In (e), so repeats the meaning of the earlier adverb hard, thus making more so an adverb phrase meaning “harder”.

Another slightly tricky connector is on the other hand. Sometimes it follows a statement prefaced by on the one hand (with the before one) and sometimes it does not. The first use names two opposing features of a single person or thing, separated by a comma, semi-colon or full stop:

(f) On the one hand, everyone in the village is friendly; on the other (hand) they always carry a gun.

Such descriptions are usually objective, without implicit judgement. More significance can be given to the second half by removing the two linking expressions and placing a simple but in the middle (see 51. Making Concessions with “May”).

On the other hand by itself, however, has a wider contrastive use, indicating a simple difference between two separate people or things (see the end of 216. Indicating Differences). This use is often confused with that of on the contrary (see 20. Problem Connectors, #1).

249. Action Noun Endings

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Action nouns are usually recognizable from the way they end

ACTION NOUNS AND THEIR ENDINGS

The term “action noun” in this blog means a noun that has similar spelling to a particular verb and can express the same meaning. Examples are movement, spelt substantially like the verb MOVE and able to mean “moving”, and existence, similar obviously to EXIST and able to mean “existing”. Action nouns are a subgroup of what are often technically called “nominalizations”. Most are grammatically uncountable, though also usable, often in a countable way, to express a non-action meaning (see 14. Action Outcomes). Action nouns have a number of special uses in professional writing (see 131. Uses of “Action” Nouns).

As the examples above indicate, action nouns are typically made by adding extra letters onto the end of a verb. The endings are varied, but each one is typically found on numerous different nouns. In this post I wish to provide a fairly exhaustive list of these endings, along with points of interest that they raise. In the process, I hope to produce what will prove to be a usefully extensive list of common action nouns.

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LIST OF ENDINGS

The following list of common action noun endings does not include -ing, as I take action words with that ending to usually be verbs in the gerund form rather than nouns (see 70. Gerunds). Although some nouns do have -ing, they tend not to represent actions (see 240. Nouns that End with “-ing”).

The words illustrating each ending are not intended to be exhaustive. The fairly rare ones that are mostly countable (i.e. able to be plural or follow a / an) are underlined.

-AGE: blockage, breakage, carriage, coverage, leakage, linkage, marriage, passage, shrinkage, spillage, spoilage, storage, usage, wastage

-AL: appraisal, approval, arrival, avowal, bestowal, betrayal, deferral, denial, dismissal, dispersal, disposal, perusal, portrayal, proposal, rebuttal, recital, referral, refusal, removal, renewal, reversal, revival, survival, trial, withdrawal

-ANCE: acceptance, admittance, allowance, assistance, assurance, attendance, appearance, conveyance, defiance, deliverance, disturbance, endurance, entrance, insurance, maintenance, observance, performance, perseverance, reliance, resemblance, resistance, semblance, surveillance, utterance

-ATION: argumentation, cessation, condemnation, condensation, consideration, continuation, derivation, determination, examination, exclamation, experimentation, explanation, exploration, formation, inclination, installation, interpretation, limitation, observation, occupation, preparation, presentation, pronunciation, publication, quotation, reclamation, refutation, relaxation, revelation, taxation, temptation, valuation, variation, finalization, harmonization, immunization, materialization, memorization, neutralization, normalization, pressurization, publication, realization, restoration, revelation, specialization, summarization, utilization, valuation, variation, visualization

-(A)TION: abbreviation, accumulation, annihilation, appropriation, articulation, association, calculation, celebration, creation, demonstration, discrimination, domestication, donation, duplication, elevation, enumeration, equation, estimation, evaluation, evaporation, exaggeration, excavation, extermination, facilitation, generation, hesitation, illustration, indication, inflation, irrigation, manipulation, motivation, nomination, operation, regulation, relation, relegation, rotation, separation, speculation, stagnation, termination, toleration, vibration

-ENCE: abstinence, convergence, correspondence, dependence, deterrence, divergence, emergence, existence, incidence, inference, insistence, occurrence, preference, pretence, recurrence, reference, residence, subsidence

-ICATION: application, clarification, classification, edification, electrification, exemplification, falsification, identification, implication, magnification, mollification, multiplication, notification, nullification, purification, qualification, quantification, ratification, signification, specification, unification

-IS: analysis, diagnosis, emphasis, metamorphosis, synthesis

-MENT: accompaniment, acknowledgement, advancement, advertisement, agreement, alignment, announcement, annulment, appointment, arrangement, assessment, attachment, attainment, commencement, commitment, concealment, confinement, containment, curtailment, derailment, development, embellishment, enactment, encouragement, endowment, enforcement, engagement, enhancement, enjoyment, enlargement, entertainment, enticement, establishment, fulfilment, harassment, improvement, investment, involvement, judgment, management, measurement, movement, payment, procurement, pronouncement, punishment, recruitment, replacement, replenishment, requirement, retirement, statement, treatment

-SION: admission, commission, comprehension, concession, conclusion, conversion, decision, digression, discussion, diversion, division, emission, expansion, expression, expulsion, extension, fusion, impression, inclusion, omission, permission, persuasion, possession, progression, provision, recession, reversion, revision, succession, suppression, suspension

-T: ascent, complaint, deceit, descent, pursuit, receipt, restraint

-TION: acquisition, (re)action, addition, assertion, assumption, attention, attribution, collection, competition, composition, conception, connection, construction, contraction, conviction, corruption, deception, definition, demolition, description, destruction, detention, diminution, direction, disinfection, distribution, exemption, exposition, extinction, extraction, imposition, infection, injection, insertion, instruction, intention, interruption, introduction, opposition, perception, prediction, presumption, production, prohibition, reception, recognition, redemption, reduction, relation, repetition, restriction, resumption, retention, satisfaction, solution, suggestion, supposition, transition

-URE: closure, departure, enclosure, disclosure, erasure, exposure, failure, pressure, seizure

-Y: apology, assembly, delivery, discovery, entreaty, entry, expiry, injury, inquiry, mastery, mimicry, mockery, photography, piracy, recovery, scrutiny, summary

PHRASAL VERB DERIVATIVES: check-in, climb-down, comeback, cutback, downturn, holdup, outbreak, pick-up, roll-out, selloff, shutdown, slowdown, takeover, take-up, upswing, upturn

SAME AS THE VERB: advance, appeal, approach, attack, attempt, boost, change, capture, climb, collapse, compromise, contrast, cure, cut, decrease, deed, delay, demand, dip, drop, encounter, escape, fight, exit, fall, fight, flow, fracture, guarantee, guess, hope, increase, journey, look, mention, need, march, move, position, progress, promise, purchase, push, reform, release, request, research, return, review, rise, rush, search, start, stop, support, surge, survey, transit, travel, trust, turn, use, wish

OTHER: birth, choice, coercion, commentary, comparison, conspiracy, criticism, death, defence, flight, growth, hatred, hypnotism, loss, oversight, practice, pretence, proof, response, sale, speech, success, suspicion, tendency

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OBSERVATIONS

An important general point about endings that can make action nouns is that they do not exactly match these nouns: some are on an action-expressing noun that lacks a corresponding verb, and others are on a noun that does not express an action, despite having a corresponding action verb (I exclude here nouns expressing the meaning of state verbs, like dependence, which do have action noun characteristics: see 280. Alternative Meanings of Action Nouns).

Action nouns with no corresponding verb include activity, ellipsis, genesis, incidence and reprisal. Nouns with a relevant ending that do not express an action include advice, ailment, difference, edition, hypothesis, luggage and position. For a discussion of edition, see 197. The Language of Bibliographies, #3.

Some action noun endings are more able than others to elsewhere make words that cannot be action nouns – they are what I term “multi-use” (see 172. Multi-Use Suffixes). The -al ending is very often added to a noun to turn it into an adjective (industry – industrial, space – spatial). Quite often, -ence or -ance changes an adjective into a non-action noun, e.g. absent – absence, eminent – eminence, relevant – relevance, reluctant – reluctance (see 255. Nouns Made from Adjectives). The “zero” ending on verbs often makes adjectives rather than nouns (see 304. Adjectives Made from a Verb). Words with -ment that are never action nouns include ailment, contentment and instalment.

The -age and -ure spellings are further action noun endings that can end other kinds of words, but not usually as suffixes. Examples are advantage, village, leisure and nurture (for numerous others, see 135. French Influences on English Vocabulary, #3). The -ment spelling sometimes acts similarly (e.g. element, experiment, monument, increment).

Also notable is the occasional existence of alternative action noun spellings, expressing different action meanings:

ADMIT: admission / admittance
ADVANCE: advance / advancement
ATTEND: attendance / attention
DELIVER: deliverance / delivery
ENTER: entrance / entry
EXPOSE: exposition / exposure
MOVE: a move / movement
OBSERVE:  observance / observation
PRONOUNCE: pronouncement / pronunciation
RECEIVE: receipt / reception
REFER: reference / referral
SUCCEED: success / succession
SURVEY: survey / surveillance
USE: use / usage

The majority of the endings in the main list are clearly those containing “ion”:  -ation, -(a)tion, -ication,  -ization, -sion and -tion. The “tion” spelling is always pronounced /∫әn/ (like in fashion), but some “sion” spellings are instead pronounced /ʒәn/ (like in Asian), the relevant words being conclusion, decision, fusion, diversion, division, inclusion, persuasion, provision, reversion and revision. Their corresponding verbs end mainly in /d/ but sometimes in /t/ or /z/.

In -(a)tion nouns, the “a” is also present in the verb (create – creation), and hence is not really part of the ending in the way it is with -ation (tax – taxation). Some might argue that the “t” of -(a)tion should also be bracketed as belonging to the verb rather than the ending, but I feel  it really is part of the ending, the verb having dropped its “t” before it in order to avoid a “tt” that would break English spelling rules (see 248. When to Double a Consonant).

I have separated -(a)tion and -tion nouns in order to highlight the frequency of -ate verbs among those that can become an action noun. Where the -tion ending is derived from a verb with a final “t”, such as direct, I again consider the “t” to belong to the ending rather than to the verb, for the reason given above. Most -tion endings are added straight onto the verb, but note the added vowel in addition, competition, composition (and other -pose derivatives), diminution, repetition and solution, as well as the added “p” in assumption, redemption and resumption.

Verbs that add -ation are not easy to predict, apart from those with -ize. It is noticeable that the change in some is more than just the added ending, e.g. argue – argumentation, cease – cessation, pronounce – pronunciation, publish – publication and reclaim – reclamation. Such changes are not only found in the formation of action nouns (see 41. Unexpected Vowels in Derived Words).

Nouns with -ication are overwhelmingly made from verbs ending in -fy (clarify – clarification). Exceptions are still from verbs that end in “y” pronounced /aɪ/: apply, imply and multiply (but not deny – denial). Two -fy verbs that do not use -fication are satisfy (making satisfaction) and defy (defiance).

All of the -sion nouns are made from a verb ending in either “t(e)” (e.g. permit), “d(e)” (e.g. decide) or “s(e)” (e.g. revise). Unfortunately, this does not mean that all verbs with one of these spellings make an action noun with -sion. For example, direct becomes direction and recruit becomes recruitment.

The French language has greatly influenced the formation of English action nouns, but those with -is are, like their related verbs, of Greek origin (see 90. The Greek Impact on English Vocabulary). In addition to the ones in the list above, ellipsis and genesis can express an action but have no related English verb, while hypothesis does derive from a verb (hypothesise), but signifies only the result of an action.

A notable feature of -ment nouns is the number derived from en- verbs. It seems almost a rule that en- verbs make action nouns with -ment.

Phrasal verbs, like verbs in general, do not all have a related noun. Moreover, action nouns are not the only kind that can be made from them. With all nouns, however, formation is the same: joining the two constituent words (verb + adverb) into one (see 139. Phrasal Verbs, #3). Often the verb remains at the start (sell off – a sell-off), but sometimes it is second (break out – an outbreak). A further feature of action nouns made from phrasal verbs is their frequent countability.

Nouns spelt the same as their related verb are very numerous, but many are unable to express an action, or at least raise doubts. This seems true, for example, of comment, end, grasp, lecture, promise, outline and risk. Among the examples that signify an action, the frequency of countable nouns is again notable.

219. Wording next to Indirect Questions

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Much choice is possible concerning the words needed to support an indirect question in a sentence

THE VARIABILITY OF WORDING NEXT TO INDIRECT QUESTIONS

Like most indirect speech, indirect questions usually occupy only part of a sentence, the other part giving such information about them as their originator and purpose. In the following example, the part outside the question is of a kind that most people would probably consider typical:

(a) Economists ask what determines consumer choice.

Here, the indirect question (underlined) is the object of a main verb (ask). The subject of this verb (economists) is the originator of the question, while its tense shows that the asking probably occurs regularly. We also understand that the question is being “reported”, since its first asking comes from someone other than the writer.

Because (a) is such a typical indirect question sentence, its form tends to receive prominent attention in grammatical descriptions of indirect speech. However, indirect question sentences have numerous other possible forms, many not given much attention at all. The question can be not just the object of the sentence but also a subject, complement or partner of a preposition. The idea of “asking” can be expressed with not just a verb but also a noun or adjective. It can even be replaced by alternatives like “explaining” or “knowing”, for example by means of the verb explain or know in (a) instead of ask.

The main Guinlist post on indirect questions touches on all of these points (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing), but it does not provide an in-depth examination of wording next to indirect questions, and it is this that I wish to conduct here. The only area that I will not consider is wording between parenthetical commas, or even absent altogether. For details of these, see 183. Statements between Commas and 207. Exotic Grammar Structures 4, #4.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIRECT QUESTIONS

In order to examine the wording that can go alongside indirect questions, it is necessary to be sure what an indirect question is. This matter is considered in detail in 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing, but essential characteristics are as follows:

1. A question word (or noun equivalent) at the start, without that in front.

2. Standard word order: no part of the verb before the subject.

3. Occurrence (normally) in a noun position inside a longer sentence.

4. Adjacency in sentences to wording indicating asking, explaining or knowing / not knowing.

5. Absence (normally) of a question mark at the end.

The relevance of point 4 here is that it helps to distinguish indirect questions from similar-looking expressions that appear to meet all of the other requirements, like the following:

(b) What Caesar did was illegal/astonishing.

I would not consider what Caesar did here to be an indirect question because the accompanying words do not indicate asking, explaining or knowing / not knowing. An indirect question would be shown by will be investigated (= asking) or is as follows (= explaining) or is debatable (= not knowing).

Much of the variability of the wording alongside indirect questions is in the way that asking etc. is expressed. The various possibilities are as follows.

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WAYS OF INDICATING ASKING ETC.

1. Verbs

Verbs that mean a type of asking, explaining or knowing are the most obvious and likely means of signalling an indirect question. If they can do so with an academic reference, they fall into the category of “citation” verbs (see 76. Tenses of Citation Verbs). Some of the commonest are listed in this blog in 279. Grammatical Differences between Citation Verbs.

Most verbs occur in the active voice with the question as their object, and their subject indicating either the speaker or someone who is being cited, e.g.:

(c) I will now consider when this started.

(d) Jones (2018, p. 6) examines the origins of satellite TV.

(e) Could you tell me where the library is?

The verb consider in (c) could be either asking or explaining. Its slightly informal subject I could be replaced by the name of the communication medium, e.g. this essay or the current chapter (see 46. How to Avoid “I”, “We” and “You”). Alternatively, there could be a starting It is (now) + adjective (e.g. desirable, helpful, important, interesting, necessary, opportune, useful, valuable) or + noun (e.g. time), followed by the infinitive verb to consider (see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “it”). The overall purpose of the question in (c) is topic-introducing.

Sentence (d), with another person’s name as subject, is a report of the kind often found in literature reviews (see 76. Tenses of Citation Verbs). The indirect question starts with a noun (origins), but could equally well have the question word how or where… (see 185. Noun Synonyms of Question Words). The verb examines is an asking one.

Sentence (e) is a polite request. Unusually, it has the addressee you as the subject of an active explaining verb tell. This is possible because the indirect question is introduced with a direct one (necessitating the question mark at the end). It could also be introduced with an ordinary statement, with the speaker its subject: I would like to know….

Although indirect questions typically follow their partner verb in the object position, they can, like most objects, become a subject at the start. Sentence (c), for example, could become:

(f) The moment when this started will now be considered.

The indirect question now starts with a noun (moment) instead of a question word – a seemingly normal requirement at the start of a sentence (see 285. Complexities of Question Words, #2). The verb, moreover, is in the passive voice.

Verbs with an indirect question subject quite often need to be passive, but not always: the active form of a different  verb can sometimes be found instead (see 27. How to Avoid Passive Verbs). In (f), for example, will be considered could be replaced by needs consideration. This does not mean, however, that an alternative to a passive verb should always be sought: sometimes a passive will be better (see 69. How Computers Get Grammar Wrong 2).

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2. Nouns

Question-signalling nouns can avoid undesirable aspects of verb use, such as I subjects (as in [c] above) and passive forms. Many are derived from a verb by means of an ending like -sion, -ation, -ment and -al (see 287. Speech and Thought Nouns).

Common verb-derived examples are analysis, clarification, consideration, definition, description, enquiry (into), illustration, identification, indication, investigation (of/into), judgement (about), outline, study, summary and survey. Question-signalling nouns not derived from verbs include issue, matter, moot point, question and uncertainty (about).

Indirect questions signalled by a noun can be incidental to other information in their sentence or its main point. In the first case, they and their signalling noun (the two usually linked by of, e.g. identification of why…) just have a normal noun role – subject, object, etc. – in a statement giving the other information. The reason for of is that the indirect question is often what I have elsewhere called “object-like”: destined to become an object if the signalling noun were to be paraphrased with its related verb. Of is the typical preposition before such nouns (see 31. Prepositions after Action Nouns 1).

Nouns not derived from a verb often need of as well to link with an indirect question, but a different kind, similar in meaning to “which is” (see 160. Uses of “of”, #4). It usually necessitates the before the noun (e.g. the issue / question of why…).

When an indirect question is the main point of a statement, it will occupy either the start, as in (f), or the end. With it starting, the signalling noun follows in a statement like …needs consideration, …is an important question or …defies explanation.

Nouns with no related verb (matter, question, issue etc.) commonly follow a characterising adjective, common examples being central, complicated, controversial, crucial, fascinating, fundamental, important, interesting, key, major, obvious, necessary, puzzling, tricky and vital. The adjective moot can only accompany a … point. A substitute for all of a(n) + adjective + question (etc.) is of interest or of importance (see 198. Indicating Importance, #2).

If a question ends rather than starts a sentence in which it is the main point, a preceding signalling noun is usable in various ways. Verb-derived nouns can combine with a passive “dummy” verb plus preposition, e.g. Consideration will be given to… in (c). The choice of verb depends on the noun: a judgement…about needs BE MADE, an enquiry…into BE UNDERTAKEN or BE CARRIED OUT (see 173. “Do Research” or “Make Research”?). The active of an alternative verb is sometimes possible too, e.g. centre on after consideration.

On the other hand, nouns like matter can accompany BE:

(g) A key question is (or It is a key question) why…

For more on the use after It is…, see 318. “It is” + Noun & Another Verb, #1.

Alternatively, both types of signalling noun can follow there + BE. For example, (c) could start either There will be consideration of… or There is a/the matter of… (see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences, #2).

Sometimes, either type of pre-question signalling noun is linked to previous information by means of a verb like LEAD TO or PROMPT:

(h) This observation LEADS TO consideration (or the matter) of why…

Before matter etc. RAISE is also possible; before consideration etc. NECESSITATE is.

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3. Adjectives

Adjectives can accompany an indirect question not just as shown above before an infinitive verb or a noun, but also alone. The possibilities are considered in detail in 300. Adjective Indicators of Indirect Speech.

With indirect questions that are not reported, a signalling adjective is likely to go in front after it is:

(i) It is interesting where insects go in winter.

Other adjectives usable like this include clear (= obvious), controversial, disputed, doubtful (+ whether), fascinating, important, mystifying, obvious, puzzling, tricky, uncertain (= unproven), unproven and unknown. All these perhaps imply the presence of an asking noun like the question of just before the indirect question (see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #8). The question itself must begin with a question word, not a noun equivalent.

When a question is reported as somebody else’s, a preceding adjective is likely to link with it via a preposition:

(j) Einstein was curious ABOUT why weight changes in elevators.

A few non-reported indirect questions can be expressed similarly:

(k) The durability of Greek drama is indicative OF how perceptive it is.

Other adjectives like curious and indicative include aware (of), baffled (about / as to), (un)certain (about / as to), (un)clear (about / as to), convinced (of / about), doubtful (about / as to), ignorant (about / as to), interested (in), knowledgeable (about), suggestive (of) and (un)sure (about / of / as to). For more about certain, see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #2. For more about doubtful, see 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1, #7.

193. A Test of Formal Language Use

 

Here is a short test for measuring and increasing ability to write in a formal style

THE NATURE OF THE TEST

Two of the most popular posts in this blog are 46. How to Avoid “I”, “We” and “You” and 108. Formal and Informal Words. The fact that they both deal with formal style suggests that this aspect of English is of particular interest to Guinlist readers. As a result, it seems a good idea to offer something that allows the content of both posts, as well as of others on a similar theme, to be revised and practised.

This post is similar to 138. Grammar Command Test 1 and 214. Grammar Command Test 2: it invites readers to identify and correct deliberate errors in a short paragraph, and then discusses the corrections. The errors this time, however, are of style rather than grammar (for the difference, see 100. What is a Grammar Error?).

A list of major style topics considered elsewhere in this blog is in 166. Appropriacy in Professional English. The full range of the Guinlist posts on formal style can be accessed by clicking on “Formal Style” in the CATEGORIES menu on the right of this page.

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THE TEST PARAGRAPH

The paragraph below has numerous informal expressions that are best avoided in formal writing. Readers are invited to identify them and suggest formal equivalents. A list of answers with explanations follows the paragraph, and the paragraph itself is rewritten at the end of the post.

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IDENTIFICATION OF INFORMALITIES

The paragraph contains at least 28 informal expressions. Success in recognising and suitably rewriting at least 20 of them with very few unnecessary changes probably indicates good knowledge of formal English style.

1. can’t monkeys

Words with missing letters (“contractions”) should be written out in full in formal style: cannot instead of can’t.

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2. Why…?

This is a direct question introducing a topic. Indirect questions are more common for such a purpose in formal writing, though not compulsory. An indirect question needs introductory wording like One may wonder… or A key question is… (see 219. Wording next to Indirect Questions). The question itself should have its subject monkeys before all of the verb cannot speak (…why monkeys cannot speak…), and should end with a full stop, not a question mark (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing).

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3. You might think

You is typically avoided in formal style (see 46. How to Avoid “I”, “We” and “You”). When it is the subject of a verb that also has an object, as here, a common avoidance strategy is to make the verb passive. This changes the object into the subject, enabling you to be left unsaid.

A further problem here, however, is the length of the object (the rest of the sentence after think). English prefers to put long subjects at the end of a sentence, replacing them with a “dummy” it in the subject position at the start (see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “it”). Thus, using the passive here should produce It might be thought…. The next word should probably be that, since its absence after a speech verb is slightly informal.

An alternative correction is simply to replace you with one (One might think that…: see 211. General Words for People).

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4. it’s because

Change it’s to this is. The contraction –’s is obviously informal, but saying it is because instead of this is because to explain a whole statement in a previous sentence is also not very formal. Generally it should represent the subject of a previous statement rather than all of it (see 28. Pronoun Errors, #1).

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5. they’ve got

GET is nearly always informal. Formal equivalents vary according to which of its many meanings is involved (see the end of 108. Formal & Informal Words). In this case, have by itself is possible – it is neither formal nor informal (see 116. Rarer Uses of HAVE). Possess is a more formal alternative.

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6. things like that

Thing(s) is often but not always informal (see 260. Formal Written Uses of “Thing”). This informal use could be replaced by suchlike.

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7. But (as a matter of fact)

A contrast is being made here between you might think in the sentence before (= appearance) and as a matter of fact (= reality). These ideas are in different sentences. Showing a relation between ideas in different sentences is an informal use of but. Its more common use, stylistically neutral and reflecting its status as a conjunction, is to show a relation between ideas in the same sentence (see 25. Conjunction Positioning).

One way to remove the informality is to change the full stop before but into a comma. Another is to replace but with a connector like however or nevertheless (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors).

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8. as a matter of fact

This is a multi-word connector. It is unusual for connectors to be informal – another example is besides (see 20. Problem Connectors, #6). A more formal equivalent is in fact.

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9. big difference

Big, like GET, is nearly always informal. The choice of substitute usually depends on the noun being described (see 108. Formal and Informal Words). Important is not normally a possibility (see 198. Indicating Importance). A suitable choice here is major.

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10. we find it

Like you, we often needs to be avoided in formal style. Making the verb passive is a simple solution here: it is found. Even more formally, one could say it is located.

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11. So there’s

A consequential so at the start of a sentence is like but in #7 above. To be more formal, either change the preceding full stop into a comma, or replace so with the connector therefore.

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12. So there’s

Say there is to avoid the contraction.

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13. a lot of space

A lot is always informal. Without of, it is sometimes an adverb, replaceable by greatly (with verbs) or much (see #15 below), sometimes a pronoun. With a following of, as here, it is usually a pronoun (see 160. Uses of “of”, noun use #5).

The choice of pronoun replacement depends on whether the represented noun is uncountable, like space here, or plural countable. In the first case, we can say a large amount (of), a large quantity (of) or a great deal (of). In the second case (not applicable here), a large number (of) is possible, or simply many (without of) or, very formally, numerous (see 81. Tricky Word Contrasts 2, #9).

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14. give out

Multi-word verbs are usually quite informal (see 108. Formal & Informal Words). A more formal, Latin-derived equivalent here is produce or emit.
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15. a lot (more sound)

Say much instead. This replacement is possible here but not in #13 because a lot is now an adverb: giving information about the comparative word more (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much, under “Very”). For a full discussion of much with comparative adjectives and adverbs, see 98. “Very”, “Much” and “Very Much”.

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16. Humans got

This use of informal GET can be paraphrased with acquired or even evolved or developed.

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17. I mean

This verb with subject I is acting like a connector. Formal equivalents are that is to say or in other words.

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18. a bit like

Like a lot, a bit is informal and grammatically variable (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much). One could say instead a little like.

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19. to start with

A slightly more formal two-word verb that could replace this one is to begin with. Both act like a sentence-spanning adverb. Only a few verbs can do this, some in the -ing form, some with to (see 183. Statements between Commas). The adverb equivalence means that adverb expressions are also a replacement possibility. One could say at the beginning or, very formally, initially.

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20. Maybe

This informal adverb equates to perhaps or possibly. It should not be confused with the verb may be (see 26. One Word or Two?).

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21. dropped down

Another two-word verb, this can be replaced by the more formal descended.

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22. the biggest cause

With cause, biggest is best replaced by greatest or main.

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23. going round

The verb GO makes numerous two-word verbs, most quite informal (see 176. Ways of Using GO, #6). This one can be replaced by moving or walking.

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24. That pushed

It would be possible here to say this instead of that. Both refer back to using two (legs) in the previous sentence, but that also highlights its great distance in time from the present day (see 234. Adjective and Pronoun Uses of “that”). Its slightly informal feel might be because it prevents exclusive focus on the fact being described.

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25. In my opinion

For detailed advice on avoiding I/me/my in opinion-giving, see 107. The Language of Opinions. Here, one might replace the above phrase with arguably or drop it and make the verb seems to be.

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26. pretty high

Pretty is a very informal “degree” adverb indicating moderate strength of a following adjective or adverb. It has numerous equivalents of a more formal nature including fairly, moderately, quite and rather (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much). The last seems best here because high is expressing something undesirable, a typical situation calling for rather.

Degree adverbs are also illustrated by a lot/much in #14 above and a bit/a little in #17. Note that pretty/fairly go only before base adjectives and adverbs, not comparative ones; a lot/much go only before comparative ones; while a bit/a little can accompany both base and comparative forms.

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27. You won’t hear

To avoid this personal pronoun + contraction, say either one will not hear or there is no likelihood of hearing (see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences, #4).

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28. don’t easily get

Change the contraction to do not, and replace get with suffer from.

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THE CORRECTED PARAGRAPH

If the above paragraph is corrected in the ways suggested above, it reads as follows. Alternative corrections are often possible.

One may wonder why monkeys cannot speak. It might be thought that this is because they possess no larynx (voice box), wrong-shaped teeth, a different tongue, and suchlike. In fact, however, monkeys have a larynx too. The major difference between a human larynx and a monkey one is the position: it is located lower in humans than in monkeys. Therefore, there is a large amount of space above a human larynx. The result is that human voices can produce much more sound. Humans probably acquired their lower larynx through evolution. In other words, they were a little like monkeys initially, but slowly their larynx descended. Perhaps the greatest cause was the change from moving on four legs to using just two. This pushed the head more forward and the larynx lower. Arguably, the price of this is rather high. There is no likelihood of hearing monkeys speaking, but they do not easily suffer from food stuck in their windpipe!

178. How to Write a Heading

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Headings in a text have some important physical and grammatical features

HEADINGS IN PROFESSIONAL WRITING

Headings introduce subsections of a text. They are thus different from titles and newspaper headlines, which introduce entire texts – and very different from subtitles, the name for on-screen translations of film and TV dialogue. For something about newspaper headlines within these pages, see 158. Abbreviated Sentences.

The value of headings is, of course, that they help clarify the organization of long texts. This is useful for professional writers because they often have to deal with long texts like business reports and academic dissertations. One kind of professional text where headings are not normally used, however, is essays: these mostly use “signpost language” instead (see 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists).

Headings are similar in some ways to bullet points (which also are uncommon in essays – see 74. Sentence Lists 3). They tend to have special formatting to enhance their visibility, they often belong to a group (though they do not have to), and these groups are usually introduced with the same kind of language as bullet points. However, there are also some major differences, such as a greater restriction of their linguistic form, and a close association with the text directly after them. This post seeks to provide as full a description as possible of the nature of headings.

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NON-LINGUISTIC HEADING CHARACTERISTICS

Perhaps the most fundamental visual feature of headings is their separation from the text above and below them. Sometimes that is considered enough, but more often the lettering is modified in some way too. Options include one or more of capitalisation, italicisation, bold type, central alignment, underlining and some form of numbering.

Visual modifications of this kind become essential when a text contains subheadings as well as headings. Subheadings – again not to be confused with subtitles – introduce subdivisions of text covered by a heading. If they have the same visual characteristics as the heading that they come under, readers might think they are new headings beginning a new section rather than continuations of an existing one. To distinguish them, they alone might be visually modified, or both they and their heading might have different visual modifications, for example one being in capital letters and the other in bold lower case.

In many cases, a particular heading or subheading will be part of a widely-separated list of headings or subheadings. When this happens, it is vital to ensure that all members of the same list have the same formatting. Notice, for example, how the heading of the next section in this post resembles the one above, but differs from the subheadings after it.

Numbering only makes sense when a (sub)heading is one of a group, but even then it is not compulsory. If both headings and subheadings have it, the numbers must look different. They might be a mixture of different number types – the possibilities include ordinary numbers (1,2,3…), large Roman numerals (I,II,III…), small Roman numerals (i,ii,iii…), capital letters (A,B,C…), and small letters (a,b,c…). One possibility to avoid, however, is number words written out in full (One, Two, etc.). Alternatively, subheadings might use the same number type that their heading has, but add a full stop and a second number, e.g. 2.3. Or they may combine two different systems, e.g. 2(c).

In most cases, a “number” is separated from the subsequent words by either a full stop or a bracket.

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LINGUISTIC HEADING CHARACTERISTICS

1. Grammatical Form

Headings cannot usually be sentences. Most lack a verb and are just nouns or noun-like phrases. Often, a verb meaning can be expressed with an “action” noun, e.g. The Destruction of Forests instead of Forests were destroyed (see 131. Uses of “Action” Nouns, #5 and #6). BE by itself, as in Languages are a problem to learn, cannot just be replaced by a colon. Usually you have to drop BE and start with the subsequent noun (The Problem of Learning Languages). If there is a following adjective rather than noun, e.g. difficult instead of a problem, it must generally be changed into a noun (The Difficulty of…). For ways of making such nouns, see 255. Nouns Made from Adjectives.

Headings that do contain a verb are often questions. In formal writing, they will usually be indirect (e.g. How Hurricanes are Formed) – again not a complete sentence. For a full description, see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing and 105. Questions with a “to” Verb. In many cases, the question word will be replaced by a noun, sometimes causing the verb to disappear too, e.g. Formation of Hurricanes (see 185. Noun Synonyms of Question Words). Outside formal writing, direct questions are possible, especially so as to sound friendly (see 166. Appropriacy in Professional English).

Another way of having a verb in a heading is by putting it among describing words after the central noun (so-called “postmodification”). This is usually done with “relative” words like who, which, that, where and why, as in Reasons WHY Children Fail (see 252. Descriptive Wording after Nouns, #3), or with the conjunction that, as in The Possibility THAT Aliens Exist (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”).

The noun-like nature of headings means a decision must be made about the articles a(n), the and “zero”. The rules seem to be mostly the same as in ordinary sentences, though perhaps the is more frequently dropped before plural and uncountable nouns. For example, Reasons for… may well be more common than The Reasons for…. A possible explanation is “hedging” – keeping things vague in the interests of factual accuracy (see 96. Making Statements More Uncertain 2). Plural and uncountable nouns with the emphasise that all of a specific group is being referred to, while an absent the leaves it unclear whether every possibility is meant.

The rareness of headings in sentence form is shared by titles. However, the two are not exactly the same. Some titles, instead of being noun-like, have a preposition at the start, especially on or concerning. A famous title with the former is Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species. This usage is perhaps influenced by the tendency of titles in Latin, a now generally-abandoned language of academic communication in Europe, to use the Latin equivalent de. It is less common in contemporary English, and has a slightly old-fashioned feel.

Another form that titles but not headings sometimes have is that of direct rather than indirect questions. My intuition, though, is that indirect questions are more common even in titles than direct ones. One further observation about headings and titles is that on average headings are probably shorter in length. This is because some of the meaning of headings can often be obtained from what is written before them – something that titles by definition rule out.

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2. Lettering

As mentioned above, some headings might be written entirely in capital letters. More often, however, lower case letters are used, except at the start of some of the words. The places where a starting capital is needed usually have the following characteristics (also possessed by book and journal titles – see 197. English in Bibliographies).

The first word in a heading normally starts with a capital, just as in ordinary sentences. Other heading words that do so are likely to be nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. The main kinds of words that do not normally begin with a capital in headings include the articles (a, the) and words like them, prepositions, pronouns (who, which, that, it, they etc.), auxiliary verbs (will, should, must, BE, DO, HAVE etc.), not, other uses of BE, and conjunctions (especially and, but, or, when and that). In fact, words with no starting capital tend to be the same ones that are usually left out in notes (see 158. Abbreviated Sentences).

For more advice on capital letters, see 62. Choices with Capital Letters.

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3. Preceding Words

It is usually a good idea to write an introductory sentence before the first of a list of headings. It should be a complete sentence with a full stop at the end, rather than a partial/complete one ending with a colon. In other words, it should resemble the kind of sentence that is common before an ordinary paragraph list (see 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists), not that before bullet points. This is because headings are not bullet points, but are themselves introductory, and in combination with the sentences after them they are very like items in a multi-sentence list.

The wording of a sentence introducing headings will be similar to that of other list-introducing sentences. Mention will be made of the general idea binding all of the headings together – what I have elsewhere called a “list name” – and there will also be an indication that a list is about to follow. In the following, words combining to express a list name are underlined, while those suggesting a subsequent list are in capitals:

(a) Schools are currently experiencing A NUMBER/VARIETY OF problems.

(b) Schools are currently experiencing THE FOLLOWING problems.

(c) The problems of schools today are AS FOLLOWS.

(d) There are VARIOUS problems afflicting schools today.

Some of these imply that the list name has not been mentioned earlier, others that it has. Sentence (a) has the first effect: the existence of the problems to be listed has as much focus as the indication of a subsequent list. This effect is probably a result of at least some of the list name being at the end. One could add as follows there after a comma without changing the focus.

Sentence (b), despite its substantial similarity to (a), has the opposite suggestion, thanks entirely to the words the following. This is thus the kind of sentence that should be used if the reader has already been told about the existence of the problems in question. If a sentence like (a) is used in such a context instead, the writer risks being accused of “bad” repetition (see 24. Good and Bad Repetition).

Sentence (c) also suggests a previous mention of the list name. The linguistic clue this time is the status of the entire list name as a noun phrase at the start (see 37. Subordination).

Sentence (d) could be understood either way. There are could be an assertion of existence, but it could also merely be list-signalling (see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences). Perhaps this flexibility explains the frequency of this kind of sentence before a list of headings.

173. “Do Research” or “Make Research”?

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It can be difficult to choose the right verb before a noun made from another verb

THE PROBLEM OF VERB CHOICE WITH WORDS LIKE “RESEARCH”

English possesses numerous verb-noun combinations like give an answer and make a decision, where the noun is derived from a verb meaning the same as the whole combination (ANSWER and DECIDE in the examples). The noun is very often, but not always, of the “action” kind (see 280. Alternative Meanings of “Action” Nouns), while the new verb with it needs selecting from a limited but quite large group of possibilities.

One question concerning combinations of this kind – when they are preferable to the simple verb – is considered elsewhere within these pages in 39. “Decide” or “Make a Decision”?. The focus here is on matching verb-derived nouns with the correct partner verb. This is not always easy because the combinations are often based more on convention than logic.

Consider, for example, the verb needed with research (without a because it is uncountable). A common incorrect choice is MAKE. The right verb is DO, but there is nothing in the usual meanings of MAKE and DO that can indicate this.

The most frequent verbs used in combinations of this kind – some much more commonly than others – include the following:

ACHIEVE success
BRING ABOUT an end
CARRY OUT an action
CAUSE surprise
CONDUCT an inquiry
DO research
DRAW a conclusion
DRAW UP a list
EFFECT a change
FEEL regret
FIND a solution
MAKE a decision
GIVE a definition
HAVE a tendency
PAY attention
PERFORM an operation
PROVIDE assistance
PUT an end to
REACH an agreement
SUFFER loss
TAKE note
UNDERGO treatment

The sections below list common noun partners of these verbs, and seek clues to their discovery within the type of meaning that either they or the verbs express.

Readers seeking information in this blog about other kinds of verb-object combination are referred to 273. Verb-Object Collocations.

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NOUNS WITH make

MAKE is one of the commonest verbs in the combinations in question. A very likely kind of partner noun is derived from verbs of saying, and similarly can or must be followed by that.

Examples are an admission, an agreement, an allegation, an argument, an assertion, a claim, a comment, a comparison (+ between), a complaint, a criticism, a defence (+ of), a demand (+ for), a distinction (+ between), an enquiry (+ about), an implication, a list (+of), mention (+ of), an observation, a plea, a prediction, a promise, a proposal, a recommendation, (a) reference (+ to), a remark, a request, a speech (+ about), a statement, a suggestion, a threat, a turn and an utterance.

Alternatives to MAKE include DRAW UP with a list, DRAW with a distinction, and PUT FORWARD with an argument, a proposal and a recommendation. GIVE is also possible with the underlined verbs, though often with a slightly different meaning (see below).

In addition, “thought” nouns commonly have MAKE. Examples are a calculation, an analysis (+ of), an assessment, a connection (+ with/between), a decision, a discovery, an estimate, a judgement, a link (+ with/between), a mistake and a plan. However, an idea needs HAVE.

MAKE is also found with various other verb-derived nouns, including an acquisition, a change, a find, a gain, an impact, an improvement, a journey, a loss, a move, a movement, progress, a purchase, a recovery, reforms, a repair, a rush (+ for), a sale, a start, a surge and a visit (+ to).

For more about MAKE, see 141. Ways of Using MAKE.

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NOUNS WITH give

Most of the verb-related nouns that typically combine with GIVE also allow the more formal-sounding PROVIDE (exceptions in the lists below are underlined). Many come from verbs of saying, just as many MAKE ones do – a possible source of error. Common examples are one’s acceptance (of), an account (of), an answer, a command, consideration (to), a definition (of), a description (of), an explanation, an illustration (of), an indication, an instruction, an outline (of), a presentation (of), proof, a reaction (to), a response, a summary (of) and a warning.

In this list, nouns without a preposition can be followed by that. The prepositions are what I have elsewhere called “object-showing” (see 31. Prepositions after “Action” Nouns 1). It is notable that many of the nouns refer to an essay-writing activity. For a discussion of corresponding verbs, see 94. Essay-Instruction Words.

The typical meaning of GIVE with nouns like the above is the “supply” one rather than the basic ownership-transfer one (see 244. Special Uses of GIVE, #1). This latter meaning is sometimes found, though: usually with a noun that elsewhere would combine with a verb other than GIVE:

(a) Suggestions can be given to the Dean.

The typical verb with suggestions is MAKE. GIVE here implies more than just suggesting: that the suggestions are physically transferable – perhaps written on pieces of paper. 

With some other nouns, GIVE meaning “supply” is an alternative to MAKE, but again is slightly different. To give an assessment, for example, is to make an existing one public for other people to appreciate, whereas to make an assessment is just to create one, not necessarily in public view. Other nouns with this dual use include an analysis, an argument, a comparison, a list and a summary.

A similar dual use involves nouns listed below under REACH, such as a conclusion. REACH is again personal, suggesting one’s own achievement, while GIVE is interpersonal, indicating sharing.

Apart from the categories listed above, GIVE nouns also include assistance, attention, a boost, a demonstration, help, reinforcement and service. For the use of PAY or TURN with attention instead of GIVE, see 132. Tricky Word Contrasts 4, #3.

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OTHER COMMON VERBS

1. DO

Relevant noun objects of this verb seem rather random but tend to represent brief actions. They include *an appraisal, a calculation, damage, a deal, a deed, (an) exercise, an experiment, homework, *an investigation, practice, a repetition, *research, *a review, *a survey, a task and work.

The underlined nouns allow CARRY OUT to make the action sound more extended. Nouns marked * allow UNDERGO to express a passive action. Damage allows SUFFER instead. An appraisal, a calculation and a deal additionally allow MAKE.

In addition, there is DO + an examination and a test, meaning “undergo academic assessment” (the role of teachers being to SET or GIVE it). By contrast, with the medical meaning of examination and test, the role of doctors is expressed with CARRY OUT, that of patients with UNDERGO.

For more, see 212. Special Uses of “Do 1“.

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2. CARRY OUT, PERFORM and CONDUCT

These typically accompany extended actions, often of the data-gathering kind. CARRY OUT and PERFORM can accompany all of the nouns in the list below. CARRY OUT is perhaps a little less formal (see 108. Formal & Informal Words). CONDUCT is an additional possibility with the underlined nouns.

The nouns are an action, *an analysis, *an appraisal, *an assessment, *a check, *an examination (non-academic), an experiment, an interview (not PERFORM), an investigation, a procedure, *(a) reconstruction, registration (not PERFORM), *reforms (not PERFORM), research, a review, *repairs, research (allows DO but not PERFORM), *a search, *a survey, treatment and *a study.

The nouns marked * here can be brief as well as extended, and then more typically have MAKE or, less formally, DO.

Some other meaning contrasts also exist. If you make a decision you decide to do something, whereas to carry out one is to make it happen. To make an enquiry is to ask something, but to carry out or conduct one is to gather information over time, in the manner of police or researchers. To perform an operation is to administer surgery, but to carry out one is just to do something.

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3. HAVE

Combination with verb-related nouns is one of numerous uses of HAVE (see 116. Rarer Uses of HAVE, #7). Unlike with MAKE and GIVE, there is often an implication that the noun meaning (often an emotion) is uncontrolled or even passive. This is the case, for example, with *a belief, *a desire, *a feeling, *hope, a liking, a need, *regret, sight of, success, *a suspicion, a tendency, *a wish and *a yearning. The nouns marked * can combine with that. Most of the emotion nouns also allow FEEL.

Other partner nouns express an action involving other people. Examples are an argument, a debate, a disagreement, a discussion, an encounter, an impact, an influence and a meeting. Impact also allows MAKE (suggesting more intention). Note that an argument after HAVE possesses the non-academic, everyday meaning of “verbal fight”: the academic meaning of “reasoned case” (see 167. Ways of Arguing 1) needs PUT FORWARD or MAKE.

HAVE also combines informally with many action nouns spelled the same as their verb, such as a go, a look and a try.

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4. REACH

Many objects of this verb are metaphorical destinations. Examples are agreement, an answer, a climax, a compromise, a conclusion, a decision, a diagnosis, an end, an estimate, fulfilment, mastery, an outcome, a proof, retirement, satisfaction, a solution and an understanding. In many cases, COME TO is a less formal alternative (see 290. Ways of Using COME, #4)

Underlining above shows usability with GIVE to mean communicating rather than achieving. A decision and an estimate replace REACH with MAKE when the time involved is brief. A conclusion also allows DRAW. Other alternative verbs are ACHIEVE (a compromise, mastery, satisfaction, a solution, success), ATTAIN and FIND (a compromise, satisfaction, a solution, success).

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5. TAKE

With some noun objects, the meaning of “acquire” is evident, e.g. control, hold, a measurement, note, ownership, possession, receipt and a view (see 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE, #10). TAKE also accompanies action, aim, care, flight, heed, a risk and a step. With a decision, it can replace MAKE, with a look HAVE.

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6. UNDERGO and SUFFER

Like some uses of HAVE, these verbs give passive meaning to an object noun. For example, undergoing a doctor’s examination is the passive of conducting one. With UNDERGO, the noun tends to represent a service provided by other people (see 21. Active Verbs with Non-Active Meanings). Further examples are analysis, change, checks, an investigation, repairs, review, scrutiny, training, transformation, transmission, treatment and trial.

SUFFER is commoner with nouns representing undesirable events, e.g. damage, decline, deprivation, disruption, doubt, erosion, a fall, infection, a loss, oppression, punishment, reduction, repression and restrictions.

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7. CAUSE, EFFECT and BRING ABOUT

These verbs can accompany many of the object nouns that passive-suggesting verbs also accompany. Common nouns (with their typical passive-suggesting verbs) are (a) change (UNDERGO), damage (SUFFER), a drop (SUFFER), an end (REACH), a fall (HAVE, SUFFER), an increase (EXPERIENCE), a reconciliation, a reduction (SUFFER), renewal (UNDERGO), a rise (EXPERIENCE), success (HAVE) and a surprise (HAVE).

A change and a reduction also allow MAKE, while damage also allows DO.

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8. PUT

This is relatively rare before a verb-related noun. It accompanies an end (to), a stop (to) and emphasis (on). The last of these also allows PLACE and GIVE (+ to).

168. Ways of Arguing 2

 

Writers sometimes support an opinion in an argument by questioning the truth or the strength of opposing evidence

CHARACTERISTICS OF WRITTEN ARGUMENT

Argument is common in professional writing. In academia, students might need it to answer “analytic” essay questions (see 94. Essay Instruction Words), while researchers might use it to derive conclusions from data. In business, written arguments assist such purposes as defining company policy or requesting funding for a project.

Arguments have two essential components: a “main” point whose truth is debatable – i.e. an opinion – and at least one fairly factual supporting point to give the opinion some credibility. If the second of these is absent, leaving just the opinion, there is no argument, and a likelihood in serious writing of losing the reader’s interest and respect. If the truth of the main point is not debatable – i.e. is a fact – then it and the supporting point form an explanation rather than an argument.

Language associated with the opinion part of an argument is considered in depth in this blog in the post 107. The Language of Opinions. Here I wish to continue the discussion started in the post before this of the language that can link opinions with their supporting statement(s). The variations are greater than might be expected because English seems to differ from some other languages in being more willing to place the opinion in an argument at the beginning rather than the end (see 222. Information Orders in Texts, #4).

There are two main ways of supporting an opinion: giving evidence in its favour and criticising opposing evidence. The first of these is the topic of the earlier post (167. Ways of Arguing 1). Criticism of evidence for an opinion opposing your own opinion can be achieved by throwing doubt on either its factuality or its relative strength.

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LANGUAGE FOR CRITICISING OPPOSING EVIDENCE

1. Factuality Questioning

Expressing doubt about the factuality of a statement supporting an opposing opinion is not by itself proof that one’s own opinion is correct, but it strongly implies that it is. Here is an example of an argument involving this kind of criticism. The evidence under attack is underlined.

(a) Critics of modern soccer often argue that players are paid too much. Salaries, they say, are not proportionate to the game’s role in society. Yet much of this concern is misplaced. The high player salaries are no more unjustified than the earnings of other well-paid sports personalities such as tennis players. There is, moreover, no proof that providing enjoyment to millions of people is any less a contribution to society than performing more obviously worthy services such as running a government.

The writer is here arguing that soccer players’ high salaries are justified. S/he does not agree that they are too high for soccer’s role in society. The reasons are that other sports stars earn similarly high salaries, and that the level of soccer’s importance in society is a matter of opinion.

This kind of argument has some characteristic language. First, the opinion that is being disagreed with must be linked with other people than the writer. In (e) this is done with critics. For other possibilities, see 22. Multiple Speakers in a Text. Next, after the opinion and introducing the questioning there must be a word – normally a conjunction or connector – meaning “but” (but, yet, however, nevertheless, even so etc.). Finally, there is normally a criticism expression like misplaced. For more examples, see 13. Hidden Negatives and 152. Agreeing and Disagreeing in Formal Contexts.

Here is another example of this kind of argument. Readers are invited to identify the above-described key elements:

(b) Various research findings have been cited in support of a link between high-cholesterol foods and heart attacks. However, this link is questionable. There have been other research projects that have not confirmed a connection between diet and heart disease.

The first sentence here contains the opinion being criticised and, first of all, simple evidence on which it is based (various research findings). All of this is attributed to other people by the passive form of the reporting verb have been cited. The criticism begins with however. The criticism word is questionable. The problem with the factuality of the evidence is said to be the suggestion that all research supports the same conclusion when in fact only some does.

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2. Counterbalancing

In this kind of argument, evidence against the writer’s own opinion is accepted as factual, but is shown to be weaker than evidence for it. There are two different ways of indicating such weakness. In one, a numerical imbalance is highlighted: the number of points opposing the writer’s opinion is shown to be smaller. In the other, it is the impact rather than the number of the opposing points that is questioned.

Counterbalancing arguments are often needed in academic essays, particularly those instructing the writer to discuss (see 94. Essay Instruction Words). If the discussion is about a single idea – whether, for example, capital punishment is a desirable state policy – the approach is often to list all of its advantages together, followed (or preceded) by all of its disadvantages, and to draw a conclusion (or validate a previously-stated one) by comparing the size or importance of each list. A useful kind of statement in this process is that one point or list outweighs the other.

An alternative type of discussion compares various competing alternatives, for example types of transport in urban areas. A likely approach here would be to consider each alternative in turn, listing first all of its advantages and then all of its disadvantages (or the reverse), before finally explaining how all this information explains a particular opinion about which alternative is the most desirable (see 277. Advantages and Disadvantages).

A typical language need in both of these argument prodedures will be for the grammar and vocabulary of listing across multiple sentences. There will usually be a sentence introducing the list (ending in a full stop, not a colon) plus a need for a suitable link word at the start of each new point (see 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists).

A particularly useful expression for starting the points in favour of a preferred opinion is to begin with (see the end of 183. Statements between Commas). Its value is to suggest that the list is long and strong. Statements of subsequent evidence are typically introduced with “addition” connectors like moreover, furthermore and in addition, or adjectives like another. A switch from supporting to opposing points or vice versa can be shown with however or on the other hand.

At the end, when a link has to be made between the mentioned evidence and the opinion based on it, it is useful, as in oral presentations, to begin with a phrase like in conclusion, to sum up, it is clear from the above that… or on the basis of the above.

One way to make opposing evidence seem less important during this summing up is by means of “concession” language, as in the following examples from the Guinlist post 51. Making Concessions with “May”:

(c) Coal may be a cheap fuel but it harms the environment.

(d) Train travel should be preferred to driving whenever possible. It may be tiring, but it is kinder to the environment.

No opinion is actually stated in (c), but one is easily inferred: the writer thinks coal should not be used as a fuel. This can be said explicitly if necessary, at either the start or the end. The opinion stated in the first sentence in (d) can also go at the end.

Both (c) and (d) signal the opposing point (underlined) with may and the writer’s own point with but. The very meaning of but suggests that what follows is a more important point, but a writer ought to back this up with some subsequent detail. May and but are not the only words that can do what they do: the above-mentioned post lists numerous alternatives.