322. Some Sad News

Our beloved father, Paul, sadly died on Friday, 1st September 2023, aged 74. He had cancer. It was just a few days after his last post on this blog, and he was delighted to have mustered the energy to do that.

Apart from the distant prospect of Manchester United winning the Premier League, or England the World Cup, he looked forward to nothing more than posting on this blog every fortnight. It is you, the readers of this blog and his books, that kept him motivated to keep going right until the very end.

As his five children, we would love to hear any tributes to our Dad and how his blog and other writings (and teachings) have helped people with the English language that we could use in his book of condolences and at his funeral. We are still working out how to use the site but it seems that we can see any comments that are submitted, even if they don’t appear to you.

Yours in grammar,

Alicia, Claire, Emily, John-Paul and Noelle.

321. Types of “-ing” Verb after a Verb

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There are  a variety of circumstances where a verb after another one has “-ing”

THE VARIETY OF POSSIBILITIES

A verb ending with -ing may be an adjective-like “participle” or a noun-like “gerund” (see 71. Gerund and Participle Uses of “-ing”). Either of these forms may combine closely with a verb placed just before them. They can do so in various ways, of which the main ones may be illustrated as follows:

(a) Doctors recommend taking a daily walk.

(b) Doctors foresee children becoming more obese.

(c) Children enjoy hearing (or adults telling) stories.

(d) Children like hearing (or adults telling) stories.

(e) Children can help friends struggling to learn.

(f) Parents should go walking with their children.

(g) A recommended form of exercise is walking.

In (a) here, taking directly follows the verb recommend and is understood as its grammatical object, making it noun-like and hence a gerund. In (b), becoming is separated from the verb foresee by the noun children, the gerund’s subject. Sentence (c) illustrates a verb (enjoy) that can go either directly before an -ing object (hearing) or before an intervening noun (adults telling). In the latter case, both words are the object but the primary meaning is still with the gerund (see 232. Verbs with an Object + “-ing”).

Sentence (d) above is similar to (c), but it illustrates a verb (like) that allows a following -ing verb (hearing, telling) to be replaced by a to (infinitive) verb carrying a slightly different meaning (to hear, to tell).

In (e), struggling follows the verb help and its noun object friends. Unlike in (b) and (c), however, this noun is the primary word in the object – it is only friends that receive the mentioned help, not their struggles. Thus, struggling is merely a description of the type of friends involved, making it adjective-like and hence a participle.

In (f), walking cannot be the object of go before it (because GO is an intransitive verb), but is instead a participle describing the subject of go (parents). In (g), walking is a complement of the verb BE, exactly identifying a recommended form of exercise, the subject of BE (see 117. Restating Generalizations More Specifically, #1). As such, it is a gerund.

The above sentences do not illustrate every possible way in which an -ing verb can follow another verb. One major excluded type is BE + participle, as in Children are playing. It is excluded because the participle is not sufficiently separate from BE, acting instead in partnership with it to make a single verb form, the present continuous tense of WALK. The other major excluded type is what I call “add-on” participles, which are not closely linked to the main verb in the sentence, but describe its subject, like this:

(h) The research ANALYSED markets PAYING particular attention to prices.

Here, the subject of paying is not markets, the object of analysed, but the research, its subject. For discussion of sentences like this, see 101. Add-on Participles.

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VERBS ASSOCIATED WITH EACH TYPE

1. Verbs like RECOMMEND

There seem to be relatively few verbs after which an -ing verb is always an object/gerund without an intervening noun, as in (a). Common ones are ADVISE, CONSIDER (= decide whether to perform the -ing action), DENY, RECOMMEND, REGRET, REJECT, RESUME and SUGGEST. Of these, ADVISE is most able to have a noun before a following verb, but the verb then needs to be changed into the to form (see 250. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar 1, #3).

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2. Verbs like FORESEE

Adding a noun before an -ing object, as in (b), is usually necessary after some cause-effect verbs of the prepositional kind, e.g. CONTRIBUTE TO, HOPE FOR, LEAD TO, LONG FOR, RESULT IN (see 32. Expressing Consequences) and WARN OF, plus a small number of other verbs, including DEMONSTRATE (= “present”), DISCOVER (= accidentally encounter”), FORECAST, FORESEE, PREDICT and SHOW (= “present”).

 

3. Verbs like ENJOY

Ability to be used equally with or without a noun before an -ing gerund is probably the most commonly found. Common verbs possessing it include ACCEPT, ANTICIPATE, APPRECIATE, AVOID, CATCH (= “observe … acting secretly”), ENDURE, ENJOY, ENTAIL, ENVISAGE, HINDER, IMAGINE, INSIST ON, INVOLVE, KEEP, LOOK FORWARD TO, MEAN (= entail), (NOT) MIND, MODEL, NECESSITATE, OBSERVE, PHOTOGRAPH, PREVENT, RECORD, RISK, STOP, STUDY and THINK OF (= picture).

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4. Verbs like LIKE

Verbs that can link with either -ing or to… after them, giving each a different meaning without changing themselves, are of two main types. With the more common, -ing (Children like hearing…) draws attention to its verb’s action through time, whereas an infinitive (Children like to hear…) presents the action as more instantaneous.

Verbs that can make this contrast fall into three meaning groups. LIKE is a like/dislike verb. Similar are LONG FOR, LOVE, PREFER, WANT, YEARN FOR and HATE. However, not all like/ dislike verbs allow the to/-ing choice: only -ing is possible after APPRECIATE, APPROVE OF, DISLIKE, ENJOY, WELCOME, ABHOR, DETEST, DISAGREE WITH and LOATH (see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1, #b). Underlined verbs in both lists can also link with it that… (see 190. Special Uses of “it”, #4).

Next among verbs allowing the above -ing/to… choice are a few that express sensation. Examples are FEEL, HEAR, LISTEN TO, NOTICE, SEE, SENSE, SMELL and WATCH. With these, the choice is better said to involve an “infinitive” than a to verb because to must be dropped (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, #2).

The third choice-allowing group express dependency, with verbs like COUNT ON, DEPEND ON, NEED, RELY ON and REQUIRE. Outside of these three areas, HAVE meaning “cause” also allows the -ing/infinitive choice, the latter again without to (see the end of 116. Rarer Uses of HAVE).

The second broad type of verb that can link with a following verb ending in either -ing or to… also requires the choice to be made according to an aspect of the following verb’s meaning – but not the aspect outlined above.

The verbs FORGET and REMEMBER, for example, need -ing with past remembered events and to with future ones. They allow an intervening noun in the first case but not the second. BEGIN, CEASE and CONTINUE allow either –ing or to…, without any intervening noun. Often, there is no meaning difference, but sometimes there seems to be association with either a single extended action or multiple repeated ones.

TRY needs -ing to imply experimentation with a behaviour, and to… to imply that a preferred behaviour is being attempted with effort that may fail. PROPOSE means “suggest” with -ing and “intend” with to…. OMIT means “not mention” with -ing and “not do” with to…. For more on such distinctions, see 302. Verbs with a Partner Infinitive, #2.

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5. Verbs with an “-ing” Participle

Any verb that can have a noun object is likely to be usable with a subsequent -ing participle, as in (e) above. Some verbs, such as HELP in (e), will not allow an -ing gerund instead, but some will. With the latter, a double meaning sometimes occurs. Consider this:

(i) Some experiments involve animals suffering pain.

If suffering here is a participle, the message is that suffering pain is not the focus of some experiments. Rather, the type of animals involved in the experiments – those already suffering pain – is being specified. By contrast, if suffering here is a gerund, the message is that animal pain is induced during the experiments (see 257. Structures with a Double Meaning 4, #2).

 

6. Verbs like GO

GO is unusual in allowing a following -ing participle without an intervening noun. The noun it describes is instead the subject of the GO verb. Its most typical meaning in such cases is “go out to enjoy…”. Commonly-used participles are driving, hiking, hunting, riding, running, shopping, swimming, visiting and walking (see 176. Ways of Using “Go”, #3).

Similar to GO -ing are COME -ing (see 290. Ways of Using COME), and TAKE someone -ing (see 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE, #17).

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7. Verbs like BE

As mentioned above, BE may combine with an -ing participle to make a standard present continuous tense form. However, if the meaning does not fit this interpretation, as in sentence (g), an -ing form is likely to be a gerund (for a particularly interesting example, see 69. How Computers Get Grammar Wrong 2, sentence #b).

The reason for the existence of two possibilities after BE is that it is a verb typically needing a “complement”, a sentence component that may be either adjective-like, opening the way for participles, or noun-like, opening the way for gerunds (see 220. Features of Complements, #2).

Different complement-taking verbs have different requirements. REMAIN is very like BE, but BECOME and SEEM are unlikely to have a following participle (preferring a noun or adjective instead). TURN is unlikely to have either a participle or gerund, normally preferring an adjective. Some complement-taking verbs, moreover, including BE and BECOME, allow a noun before a partner -ing word:

(j) The saddest sight was children begging for food.

In these cases, the distinction between a participle and gerund seems blurred.

320. Special Participle Uses

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Some participle uses involve only a small subset of participles as a whole

GENERAL AND SPECIAL PARTICIPLE USES

Participles – verbs with -ing or passive -ed acting like adjectives to describe a noun – have a variety of uses that might be termed “general”, for example as a replacement for who or which (see 52. Participles Placed Just after a Noun). Uses that I am calling “special”, on the other hand, are ones that require particular participles instead of allowing a free choice. Most help to form fixed expressions like depending on.

The aim of this post is to identify different types of special participle use, and to illustrate them with as wide a variety as possible of their associated participles. The post thus belongs among various others with “special” in their title, such as 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences,  190. Special Uses of “It”,  200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses and 235. Special Uses of “the”.

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TYPES OF SPECIAL USE

1. Preposition Equivalents

Ability to paraphrase a preposition seems to be more usual among -ing participles than -ed ones (see 295. Options in Saying Where, #2). An example of a participle equating to a preposition is accompanying instead of with:

(a)  There will be a letter accompanying the parcel.

ACCOMPANY is a rare verb whose -ed form (+ by) can also replace with:

(b)  The parcel will come accompanied by a letter.

It is only some participles that can replace a preposition. One reason is that many participle meanings are too far away from a preposition meaning to represent one. Another is that usable participles must be made from object-requiring (“transitive”) verbs, so that their object can become the “object” noun that prepositions always need (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #1). Thus, participles from object-refusing verbs, such as SUFFICE, are ruled out.

Participles that commonly act like a preposition include the following:

comprising – of (see 136. Types of Description by Nouns, #12)
concerning – about
considering – in view of (see 296. Tricky Word Contrasts 12, #4)
containing – of (see 160. Uses of “Of”)
covering – over
excepting – except (see 215. Naming Exceptions)
facing – opposite
flanking – alongside, next to
following – after, behind
lacking – without
neighbouring – near
occupying – on
passing – past
piercing – through
preceding – before
regarding – with regard to
spanning – across
supporting – under
surrounding – around
using – with (see 73. Prepositions for Saying How)

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2. In Compound Adjectives

Participles can easily combine with an adverb, adjective or noun to make a compound adjective. In a surprising number of cases, the compounds are common enough to be considered fixed.

Participles combined with an adverb are likely to be derived from an intransitive (object-less) verb (see 113. Verbs that cannot be Passive). Fixed combinations include deep-thinking, fast-flowing, free-wheeling, hard-working, high-achieving, long-lasting, never-ending, obstinately-persisting, quick-acting, rapidly-deteriorating, slow-growing, slowly-receding and wildly-fluctuating.

By contrast, participles combined with an adjective are likely to be derived from a complement-taking verb (see 220. Features of Complements). Fixed combinations include bitter-tasting, foul-smelling, good-looking, innocent-seeming, positive-sounding and rough-feeling.

Participles combined with a noun are likely to be derived from a transitive (object-needing) verb. Fixed combinations include all-encompassing, awe-inspiring, breath-taking, disease-carrying, fun-loving, heart-stopping, law-breaking, meat-eating, money-grabbing, pleasure-seeking, record-breaking, self-supporting, time-consuming and trouble-causing. Some of these can drop their hyphen so as to become a noun phrase (see 223. Uses of Hyphens, #4C).

Various other examples do not fit any of these patterns, e.g. self-seeking (= seeking things for oneself), highly-regarded, house-trained (= trained for house living), oven-cooked (= cooked in an oven), water-borne (= carried in water), well-known and wind-assisted (= assisted by wind).

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3. In Multi-Word Prepositions

Prepositions tend to be thought of as single words but can also be multi-word. Prepositions of two, three or even more words can be identified, though the last word will always be a familiar shorter preposition like to. Common examples are along with, according to, in front of and on the basis of.

The word according in according to is a participle. Other multi-word prepositions with one include based on, compared to, depending on, linked to and owing to. For their main uses, see 221. Multi-Word Prepositions, #3.

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4. In Multi-Word Conjunctions

Conjunction-based participles are typically followed by that. Common examples are assuming that, considering that, given that, granted that, provided that, seeing that and supposing that. A typical use might be:

(c) Given that chemical fertilisers often harm the environment, how else can crop yields be maximised?

The two verbs that sentences with a conjunction generally require are underlined. For an in-depth overview of that conjunctions, see 230. Multi-Word Conjunctions, #1.

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5. In a Starting Parenthetical Statement

Information that is not the main message of a sentence is often located at the start by means of an -ing participle and following comma. Most participles are usable in this way, but special ones do more. They tend to indicate that the main part of the sentence expresses the writer’s own belief:

(d) Speaking as economists, we have to disagree.

Such participles are usually ones of speaking or thinking. They often lack an object noun, but then need an as phrase (as economists) or adverb, e.g. honestly. Common verbs besides speaking include arguing, reasoning, thinking and writing. Two frequent verbs that need an object are considering and ignoring.

A further feature of special participles in a parenthetical statement at the start of a sentence is that they tend to be more usable there than ordinary participles when the subject of the main verb differs from their own, like inflation in the following:

(e) Speaking honestly, inflation has to be controlled.

For details of why ordinary participles often cannot be used like this, see 75. How to Avoid “Dangling” Participles.

A complete participle-based parenthetical statement often resembles what I call “communication-describing” adverbs like bluntly, which say how their user is speaking (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs #2). Indeed, some of the adverbs that can accompany speaking etc. – e.g. bluntly, clearly, frankly, honestly, plainly – are also usable alone.

Occasionally, the verb in a parenthetical statement like (d) or (e) is an infinitive (with to) rather than participle. For details, see the end of 183. Statements between Commas.

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6. With GO, COME and TAKE

These verbs can all be followed by an object-less -ing participle expressing a non-domestic leisure activity, such as boating camping, dancing, driving, fishing, hiking, hunting, riding, running, sailing, shopping, sightseeing, skiing, surfing, swimming, touring, travelling, visiting and walking.

GO and COME mean “go/come out to enjoy” (see the introduction to 290. Ways of Using COME). TAKE needs an object noun representing someone co-enjoying the activity under the supervision of the main performer, e.g. take someone swimming (see 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE, #18).

A slight problem with this usage is a few participles that seem eligible for it but are actually not, such as dining, eating, holidaying and praying (see 176. Ways of Using GO, #3).

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7. Describing a Following Noun

This general use of -ing participles becomes a more special one when the resultant noun phrase is a fixed, often idiomatic one (i.e. a collocation). Examples are:

burning desires
compelling evidence
defining moments
diminishing returns
distinguishing features
glaring omissions
helping hands
mounting debts
overwhelming urges
pressing matters
promising situations
running water
sickening regularity
sitting ducks
soaring profits
striking results
training courses
trying circumstances
winning strategies/smiles

Care is needed, in identifying such phrases, not to confuse them with identical-looking gerund-noun combinations like meeting rooms. For the difference, see 71. Gerund and Participle Uses of “-ing”.

319. Superficiality

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Superficiality can take many different forms, causing English to have numerous words for it

DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE

To say that something – beauty, for example – is superficial is to suggest that its real nature is worse than its observable one. Unsurprisingly, this is a common kind of suggestion in analytic writing, where there is usually a keen concern for truth. The result of such common use is that English has developed a wide variety of ways to express the idea of superficiality, just as it has for other common meanings like illustration, consequence, possibility and importance.

Most of the options for indicating superficiality are vocabulary rather than grammar. For this reason, the focus here is on listing and explaining the meanings of key words and phrases. However, grammatical properties and requirements will be indicated and explained where that seems necessary.

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WORD CATEGORIES

1. Verbs

SEEM, APPEAR, LOOK

The most obvious use of these verbs is to indicate uncertainty about the truth of a situation without actually establishing it as false (see 96 Making Statements More Uncertain 2, last section). However, in the right context they do often indicate falsehood:

(a) Horizons only seem to form straight lines.

If only here is understood to link with seem rather than with horizons, form or straight lines, it usually suggests falsehood. Other words that do the same include might and always.

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PRETEND

This verb, normally used with a human subject, can be followed by to, that or a noun object. It mostly implies a conscious effort by its subject to convey something different from reality:

(b) The Greeks pretended their wooden horse was a parting gift.

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FEIGN

Similar to PRETEND with a noun object, FEIGN means “suggest a non-existent characteristic of oneself (belief, weakness etc.) or a non-intended behaviour in order to deceive”:

(c) Feigned manoeuvres are often necessary in a team sport.

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SIMULATE

Again carrying the idea of “act in the manner of something that it is not”, SIMULATE does not necessarily imply an intent to deceive. Typically used, like FEIGN, with a noun object, it may indicate a legitimate purpose such as service or research:

(d) Artificial intelligence simulates real-world thinking.

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2. Adjectives

Superficiality adjectives tend to be usable with particular types of noun. For example, superficial can combine with quality-naming nouns like beauty, but not usually object-naming nouns like cup.

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SUPERFICIAL

Like SEEM and SIMULATE, this adjective often lacks the suggestion of deception. It may merely indicate that its noun is on the surface of something, as in superficial burns or patterns, or it may suggest incompetence, as in superficial thinking. Common nouns that are, like beauty, more likely to carry the deception idea include acquiescence, impression, manner, success and willingness.

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SKIN-DEEP

This mostly shares the ability of superficial to indicate position as easily as deception. In the latter case, it links with quality-naming nouns like beauty, affection and support.

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SPECIOUS

It is mainly nouns naming a type of justification that this adjective can combine with, such as argument, case, excuse, justification, rationale, reasoning, theory and thinking. The suggestion is that the justification is deliberately misleading.

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PLAUSIBLE

Justification types are common with this word, as they are with specious, but it also allows linkage with other speech and thought nouns, such as assumption, belief, explanation, idea, prediction and statement (see 287. Speech and Thought Nouns). Names and descriptions of people too are describable:

(e) A decision was based on the evidence of a plausible witness.

To describe someone’s name, it is necessary to place plausible after it with a link verb like BE in between:

(f) Schultz was plausible in explaining his absence.

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MISLEADING

To mislead is to cause people to think that something is different – often better – than it really is. This outcome does not have to be intended, but it often is. Typical partner nouns of the adjective might be advice, argument, evidence, publicity, representation, statement and testimony.

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SEEMING, APPARENT

These may express the same varying meanings of their related verbs (see #1 above). However, apparent is more restricted in its meaning if its noun is placed before it, separated by a link verb like BE. Compare how doing this below results in a different meaning from that of apparent success (= success that appears to have been achieved but has not really):

(g)  The success of the project was apparent.

Now, apparent means “obvious”. For a detailed explanation, see 132. Tricky Word Contrasts 4, #7.

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SUPPOSED

The meaning of this -ed adjective resembles the passive one of its related participle derived from the verb SUPPOSE (see 81. Tricky Word Contrasts 2, #3). Sometimes, it simply adds the idea of “believed” to its partner noun, but often it also implies its user’s personal scepticism about the truth of the belief. For example, a supposed success is likely to indicate a success that most people believe is real but the speaker does not.

If used without a following to verb (infinitive), supposed must normally go directly before its noun rather than after it with a link verb in between. It seems able to combine with a wide variety of positive and negative nouns. Besides outcomes like success, it may, for example, describe people (a supposed villain), human and non-human qualities (supposed enthusiasm, depth) and positions (supposed status).

For more about participle versus adjective uses of -ed, see 250. Adjectives with a Participle Ending.

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OFFICIAL

This word most commonly asserts the truth of an accompanying statement or idea by saying has been made or endorsed by an authoritative body such as a government or leading religious figure:

(h) The plans to raise taxes are official.

The suggestion of falsehood is most likely when official precedes a noun idea that most people know to be unreliable, like explanation, journey time or story:

(i) The official explanation of the move is poor weather.

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THEORETICAL

Like official, theoretical occasionally questions the truth of an authoritative idea or statement. It is especially likely to refer to something in the future. The authority may again be an expert, but it could just be experience or logic:

(j) There is a theoretical chance of bad weather tomorrow.

This would often suggest that bad weather tomorrow had been indicated but for the speaker was unlikely.

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3. Adverbs

Most of the above adjectives can be made into similar-meaning adverbs by adding -ly (apparently, misleadingly, officially, plausibly, seemingly, speciously, superficially, supposedly, theoretically). In addition, there are some colourful preposition phrases:

at first sight (= different from what later sights indicate)
on paper (= theoretically)
on the surface (= superficially)
to the untrained eye (= different from what experts see)

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4. Nouns

Again, there are some derivatives from the adjectives: plausibility, speciousness, superficiality. From the verbs there are also appearance, look, pretence and simulation.

Outside of these, there is impression, usable very like appearance, but with more suggestion of associated (dis)belief. If it is the subject of a verb, it is likely to be along with either of + noun or that + statement, each placed either directly after or with a link verb in between, e.g. The impression that/of… grew greater; The impression was that/of… (see the end of 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”). If impression is the object of a verb, the verb is likely to be GIVE (= create) or HAVE (= possess), and a following that… or of… is again common.

Appearance and look are similarly usable with of (but not that). As a verb object, appearance again allows the GIVE/HAVE choice, but look tends to allow only HAVE.

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5. “As if”

These words can sometimes question the truth of a statement by changing the tense of its verb. Consider this:

(k) Animals act as if they are machines.

The present tense of are suggests that the speaker believes in the stated idea that animals are machines. With past-tense were instead of are, by contrast, the suggestion would be of doubt.

As another example:

(l) The building looks as if an earthquake has/had hit it.

Here, has hit suggests acceptance that an earthquake may really have happened, while had hit does not.

In both of these examples, the verb before as if (act, looks) is in a present tense. If it were past instead, the acceptance distinction cannot be made. For a fuller explanation of as if, see 191. Exotic Grammar Structures 3, #3.

318. “It is…” + Noun and Another Verb

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A noun is sometimes right after forward-referring “it is”, sometimes wrong and sometimes an option

FEATURES OF THIS STRUCTURE

There are various types of sentence that can start with It is… (see 190. Special Uses of “it”). They can be broadly divided into those where it refers to something obvious from previous words or the speech situation, and those where it refers forward to something mentioned later in its own sentence.

Here, the focus is on the second of these it types. What it refers forward to is a verb-based statement at the sentence end – the true subject of is:

(a) It is a challenge to maintain food supplies.

The underlined verb-based statement here is not in the starting position that is more typical of subjects because it is quite wordy, a feature that English speakers do not like at the start of a sentence. Such wordiness is typical of verb-based statements in general. The starting it is a “dummy” subject, needed to fill the space left by the transferred true subject (see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “it”).

The wording between this kind of It… and the later verb-based statement (is a challenge above) occasionally comprises a verb + object (e.g. makes sense), but is more typically a verb + complement. The verb BE (= is above) is by far the commonest complement-taking verb, but not the only one, possible alternatives including BECOME, REMAIN and SEEM. The complement is able, like complements in general, to be either a noun or a verb. As the above title indicates, it is noun complements that are of particular interest here.

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THE POTENTIAL FOR ERROR

The use of noun complements in the relevant kind of It is… sentence is complicated in two major respects. Firstly, there is the question of when a noun is able to be used. In some cases, it is the only means of expressing a particular meaning (e.g. It is a pity…); sometimes, it is not a possible means at all of doing so (e.g. It is strange…); and sometimes it is replaceable by a similarly-spelt adjective (e.g. It is a challenge/ challenging…).

The second complication is the variability of the wording directly after the noun complement, where the verb-based statement begins. In sentence (a) after challenge, there is a to verb (to maintain). Other nouns, however, may be followed by an -ing verb or by that (with an ordinary subject + verb), or by a question word.

The common feature of all these latter wording variations is that they mark the verb-based statement as a specification or identification of the general noun idea just before them. For example, to maintain… in (a) gives the exact nature of a challenge (see 117. Restating Generalizations More Specifically).

The usability of each variation depends on the choice of complement noun before it. Challenge allows to… but not that…; fact requires the reverse. Yet predicting the right choice is hampered by not just this variability but also the fact that some nouns combine with a following verb in a different way when they are outside the complement position. Placing the challenge, for example, at the start of a sentence before a specifying statement requires of -ing instead of to (The challenge of maintaining…); whereas the fact in this position still requires that.

As usual, the best way to acquire such a complicated area of knowledge is by communicating in English as much as possible. However, additional help may come from knowing some general noun meanings that seem to be associated with each option, and it is these that I wish to explore here.

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NOUN USAGE AFTER “IT IS”

It is not possible here to list all of the nouns that could follow the relevant kind of It is…, but a fairly extensive list may give some idea of what is possible:

NOUN ONLY

an achievement (to)
a bonus (to/that)
a conundrum (that/ wh-)
a disincentive (to/that)
a duty (to)
an experience (to)
a fact (that)
a failure (to)
a good question (wh-)
a joy (to)
a moot point (wh-)
a pity (that)
a priority (to)
a relief (to/that)
a requirement (to/that)
a shame (to/that)
a struggle (to)
common sense (to/that)
fun (to)
hard work (to)
standard practice (to)
time (to)

Most of these nouns owe their use, it seems, to the fact that they have no similarly-spelt adjective that could replace them without a clear meaning change. Some do actually have a similarly-spelt adjective (e.g. time/ timely, a joy/ joyous), but only one with a noticeably different meaning.

The meanings of the nouns perhaps form some distinct categories. A “good/bad” category includes bonus, failure, fun, joy, pity, pleasure, relief, shame, struggle and hard work. “Necessity” includes duty, priority and requirement. “Factual” might describe fact, common sense and standard practice. “Asking” includes conundrum, moot point and question.

NOUN OR ADJECTIVE

an advantage/ advantageous (to/that)
a burden/ burdensome (to/that)
a certainty/ certain (that)
a challenge/ challenging (to)
a consolation/ consoling (to/that)
a crime/ criminal (to/that )
a disappointment/ disappointing (that)
a disaster/ disastrous (that)
a help/ helpful (to/that)
a mystery/ mysterious (that)
a necessity/ necessary (to/that)
a novelty/ novel (to/that)
a possibility/ possible (that)
a probability/ probable (that)
#a problem/ problematic (that)
a puzzle/ puzzling (that)
a shock/ shocking (to/that)
a surprise/ surprising (to/that)
a trial/ trying (to)
the custom/ customary (to/that)
the fashion/ fashionable (to/that)
the truth/ true (that)

Pairs like these seem more numerous than nouns in the first list, which lack a derived adjective of similar-meaning. However, it should not be concluded that any adjective whose meaning and spelling exist in a corresponding noun can be replaced by it – there are plenty of such adjectives that must always be used. Often, their corresponding noun will be uncountable. Consider this:

(b) It is enjoyable to visit new places.

It would not be correct here to say an enjoyment to…. What would be possible, however, is an enjoyable experience. Other adjectives that have a noun of similar spelling and meaning without being replaceable by it include acceptable, appealing, typical, difficult, easy, futile, normal, premature, satisfying and painful.

However, some adjectives that cannot be replaced by their similarly-spelt noun after it is can actually be changed in this way in a sentence type that is practically a paraphrase of an it is sentence, namely one starting with there is. This is the case, for example, with appealing (corresponding noun = appeal). Appealing in the position of enjoyable in (b) would become appeal in a sentence like the following:

(c) There is appeal in visiting new places.

For more on this kind of correspondence, see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences, #6.

The meaning categories represented in the second list are similar to those in the first.

For further aspects of noun/ adjective alternation, see 270. Paraphrasing Adjectives with Words of Other Kinds, #1.

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WORD CHOICES AFTER THE NOUN

Most of the above nouns, it is clear, need their following verb to be introduced with to. This may be because of the kind of meaning that the verb expresses: something to be done by either the speaker or addressee or both. Consider this:

(d) It is a requirement to sign in on arrival.

Very typically, such a sentence will be telling the addressee to carry out the mentioned action. If to is replaced by that, by contrast, this would not be the case:

(e) It is a requirement that dogs are kept on a lead.

Similarly, the first sentence below refers to an action by the speaker, while the second does not:

(f) It is a relief to have completed the task.

(g) It is a relief that the bank have received payment.

Two alternatives to to and that are -ing and question words. Replacing to with -ing seems possible after “good/bad” nouns. In sentence (f), for example, to have could easily be the rare auxiliary gerund having.

The choice between to and -ing in such situations depends on how the action is viewed (what grammarians call “aspect”): to… presents actions as brief, while -ing presents them as extended – the same contrast that is possible after some adjectives outside it sentences ( see 203. Expanding an Adjective with Words after it), and after some verbs (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, #2).

Replacement of that by a question word (how, when, who etc.) is sometimes necessary when the noun before is a question-implying one like a puzzle (see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #8):

(h) It is a puzzle why nobody is around.

For more on such sentences, see 219. Wording next to Indirect Questions, #2.

317. Tricky Word Contrasts 13

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Some word pairs are easily confused because of close similarities in spelling and/or meaning

THE PROBLEM OF TRICKY WORD CONTRASTS

Most users of English have encountered vocabulary items that are easily confused because they resemble each other in spelling and/or meaning. A well-known example – often explained in English language coursebooks – is later (= happening in subsequent time) versus latter (= second of two just-mentioned ideas). The problem is that such pairs are numerous in English, and many are rarely highlighted so that they are likely to remain unrecognised, or at least not fully differentiated.

It is these rarely-considered confusion sources, especially ones likely to occur in professional writing, that are the focus of the present post, just as they are of various others with a similar title (there is a complete list on the page in this blog entitled Posts on Specific Words). Further posts about vocabulary confusions include 16. Ways of Distinguishing Similar Words,  44. Troublesome Prepositional Verbs,  94. Essay Instruction Words,  211. General Words for People and 240. Nouns that End with “-ing”.

For some grammar contrasts, see 100. What is a Grammar Error?, 133 Confusions of Similar Structures 1 and 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1. For some pronunciation ones, see 144. Words that are Often Heard Wrongly.

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LIST OF CONTRASTS

1. Eager(ness) – Willing(ness)

The adjective willing and related noun willingness are obviously both derived from the word will. However, their meaning differs in a subtle enough way to make them unsuitable for expressing the idea of will in adjective or noun form.

The most familiar use of will is as an auxiliary verb, as in …will happen. Its typical suggestion is, of course, the idea of “future”, but this is usually alongside a secondary meaning like “promise” or “prediction” (see 147. Types of Future Meaning). In rare cases, for example when will is spoken with emphasis or used after if, the secondary idea is of wanting something (see 316. Future Verbs without “Will” or “Shall”, #4).

This idea of wanting something becomes the main meaning of will when it is used as an ordinary rather than auxiliary verb:

(a) Everyone was willing the initiative to succeed.

The underlined words here are a past continuous form of the verb WILL, not BE before the adjective willing. This is clear from the subsequent wording: object + to verb (see 208. Verbs with an Object + Infinitive, #5), replacing that…should…. The idea of wanting something is also present in the noun will, whether used countably (= inheritance document) or uncountably (= wish).

The frequency of the idea of wanting in will is logical grounds for seeing the same idea in willing and willingness. However, the logic is misleading: these words both indicate agreement to do something without indicating how much it is wanted. An action that someone is willing to perform might be a totally hated one, like eating disgusting food, the agreement to perform it being based on a very different stimulus from the attraction of the food, such a desire to avoid offending someone. One close synonym is prepared(ness).

Suitable alternatives for expressing the idea of wanting are the adjective-noun pairs eager(ness) and keen(ness). Like willing(ness), both can be followed directly by a to verb.

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2.  AGREE – ACCEPT

AGREE is usable with either a that statement or a to (infinitive) verb (as well as with various prepositions – see 44. Troublesome Prepositional Verbs, #1). Before that, it typically means “concur”:

(b) Caesar agreed that he / the journey was taking too long.

(c) Caesar agreed that he / troops would make the journey.

These suggest Caesar, the subject of agreed, had heard the opinion of someone else about the journey, and had decided that it either matched or should match his own opinion. The focus of (b) is an existing situation, that of (c) a future action. The subject of the verb after that may be either the same as that of AGREE (he above) or different (troops/the journey).

Sometimes, an additional suggestion with an agreed future action is of steps being taken to bring it about – the idea of consent as well as of concurrence. It is only possible if the subjects of AGREE and the verb after it are different, and if the subject of AGREE is understood to have the power to arrange the relevant event. In sentence (c), Caesar and he meet these conditions.

With a directly-following infinitive, by contrast, the idea of consent is the main meaning of AGREE. The subject of the infinitive can only be the same as that of AGREE.

ACCEPT is an object-dropping verb with the fundamental meaning of “choose to keep”. With an explicit or implicit noun or pronoun object representing a gift or offer, the choosing is implied to be gracious; but with one representing something undesirable, such as poverty or discomfort, there is an implication of resignation, stoicism or heroic suffering. Neither of these implications, though, is present with other objects. All noun objects refer to a past or existing situation, not a future one.

An alternative kind of ACCEPT object is a that statement. This allows only the implication of resignation etc. Unlike noun objects, that statements can refer to a future situation (…that mistakes would be made), as well as a past or present one. However, they still indication resignation, not consent.

The most common confusion of AGREE and ACCEPT is in the giving of consent to a future action. Only AGREE can express this meaning: agree to do for one’s own future action, agree that X will for someone else’s. ACCEPT with a following infinitive (*accept to do) is ungrammatical, while ACCEPT that … will indicates resignation rather than consent.

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3. Proposal – Proposition

These two countable nouns – both derived from the verb PROPOSE – may express either the action of that verb or its outcome (see 280. Alternative Meanings of Action Nouns).

Both words reflect the fundamental “suggest” meaning of PROPOSE, but differ in the type of suggestion that they indicate. Proposals are suggested plans or actions, propositions suggested ideas:

(d) Ali’s proposal is to store all the data in one place.

(e) The project will explore the proposition that productive workers are the happiest.

Note the infinitive verb after proposal and the that statement after proposition. That… is also possible after proposal, but infinitives are unlikely after proposition. Because proposal is future-referring, it allows the option of putting the verb after that into the “subjunctive” form (see 316. Future Verbs without “Will” or “Shall”, #5).

Propositions are especially likely in Law, Mathematics and Philosophy, where they are presented as possible truths, often in preparation for their systematic analysis. Elsewhere, they may mean “challenges”. In romantic situations, a proposition is an invitation to engage in sexual activity, whereas a proposal is a request for marriage.

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4. Suspect – Suspicious

Although suspect can be a verb, noun or adjective, it is the last of these that I wish to concentrate on because of the exclusively adjective nature of suspicious. The adjective suspect is, like the noun but unlike the verb, pronounced with stress on sus-, causing the “u” vowel to be pronounced fully as /ʌ/ rather than weakly as /Ə/ (see 125. Stress and Emphasis).

Suspect usually indicates the existence of a hidden problem within what it is describing, leading to a negative impact on people’s trust in it. It mostly describes objects, substances or abstract ideas. For example, a bridge might be described as suspect if it moved unexpectedly when in use, and an argument could be called suspect if unconvincing. If a living thing is called suspect, it is similarly believed likely to possess a hidden weakness, such as an inability to cope with pressure.

Suspicious too can say its noun idea is mistrusted by its observers. However, the noun idea is more likely to be behaviour by a living being than a physical quality in an object. An example of suspicious behaviour might be somebody on a low income regularly purchasing expensive luxuries.

Suspicious can also describe an observer of suspicious behaviour, its meaning then being “having suspicion” rather than “causing suspicion”. A car owner, for example, might be suspicious after their newly-serviced car still performed poorly. The person causing the suspicion can be named in an of phrase after suspicious (e.g. suspicious of the garage).

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5. In a Position – In Position

It is surprising how often in English just including or excluding a(n) or the within a fixed phrase can make a significant meaning difference. For numerous examples with the, see 235. Special Uses of “the”, #9.

The two expressions above usually precede a to (infinitive) verb. In a position is a formal way of saying “able”:

(f) Our organization is in a (good) position to offer its help.

Without a, by contrast, the meaning is “in a/the correct place”, and the context is likely to be sporting:

(g) The goalkeeper was in position to stop the shot.

Note, though, that an adjective added before this latter use of position needs to be accompanied by a or the, e.g. …was in a suitable (or the right) position to….

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6. At/On/In the Scene

The noun the scene changes its meaning according to the preposition used before it. After on, it refers to a particular area of activity, such as politics, sport or education. For example, a politician mentioning new people appearing on the scene would probably mean people newly entering politics.

After at, the scene refers to a place where something has recently happened or is still happening. Crime and disaster locations are especially likely to be involved. Newspaper reports, for example, will often say at the scene of the theft.

After in, the scene usually refers to a shortish segment of a book, play or film, usually involving a single event or location. As an example, one might hear that a film director made a brief appearance in the fight scene.

For more about nouns after a predictable preposition, see 252. Descriptive Wording after Nouns 1, #2.

316. Future Verbs without “Will” or “Shall”

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Verbs can refer to the future in various ways without “will” or “shall”

REPLACING “WILL” OR “SHALL” IN VERBS

The “future tense” (with will or shall) is by no means the only means by which a verb can be understood as referring to the future. English has a variety of alternative verb forms that become necessary in the right circumstances. Here, I wish to clarify those circumstances and to look at the particular alternative to a future tense that is associated with each.

It should be noted that most of the will/shall alternatives to be presented are verb forms. In other words, they are grammatical possibilities, not grammar-replacing vocabulary. As I have suggested elsewhere, English tense meanings cannot normally be expressed just by a neutral verb combined with a suitable non-verbal vocabulary item (cf. 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #1).

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CIRCUMSTANCES THAT RULE OUT “WILL” / “SHALL” REPLACEMENT

1. Expressing Special Types of Future Meaning

There are some types of future meaning that require a verb either to be combined with a future-suggesting other verb like going to, FACE, BE TO and BE SCHEDULED TO, or to be put into a tense other than a future one.

Going to is perhaps the most obvious alternative to will / shall. Like these words, it combines directly with the base form of a further verb. Its special meanings will not be elaborated here because they are so commonly described in mainstream grammar descriptions (though see 176. Ways of Using “Go”, #6).

Note, however, that whereas will and shall themselves carry the future meaning of a verb, going to transfers it to the verb after. Since the subsequent verb is always in the to (infinitive) form, that form can be taken as the normal grammatical alternative to will or shall in going to combinations. Going to itself can be in any tense. If it is used with will or shall (will be going to…), two separate future ideas will be involved.

Future-referring FACE is similar in meaning to going to (see 314. Words with Complicated Grammar 4, #1). Grammatically, however, it must be followed by an “action” noun object rather than an infinitive verb (e.g. …faces an uphill struggle), this still being where the future meaning is located.

Future-referring BE TO usually reports either an arrangement or a command. Consider this:

(a) All staff are to convene in the main hall at 9.00.

If an arrangement is being reported here, the occurrence of the meeting is a decision made by staff. However, if a command is being reported, the staff are not the ones who have called the meeting – they are just being told (politely) that they are required to attend (see 119. BE before a “to” Verb, #4 and #5). In both cases, it is the infinitive form of the verb after BE TO that replaces will/shall.

It would also be possible to say in (a) are scheduled to convene. This would leave it vague about who had called the meeting.

There are various types of future event or situation whose futurity is typically shown by a verb in a tense other than the future. If the event or situation is a single one and planned by someone other than the speaker, the tense is likely to be present simple or present continuous:

(b) The visitors depart (or are departing) tomorrow.

It is will in such sentences that usually suggests planning by the speaker.

By contrast, futures planned by someone other than the speaker to be repeated at predictable times are more typically indicated with the present simple:

(c) The Sociology lecture takes place this Friday.

For more about planning, see 147. Types of Future Meaning, #5.

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2. After Future-Pointing Speech/ Thought Verbs

Common speech or thought verbs that sometimes or usually accompany a verb with future reference, similarly to going to, include AIM, ANTICIPATE, ENVISAGE, EXPECT, FORECAST, FORESEE, FORETELL, GUARANTEE, HOPE, IMAGINE, INTEND, PLAN, PLEDGE, PREDICT, PROMISE, PROPHESY, SEE (= predict), SUPPOSE, SWEAR, THREATEN, UNDERTAKE, VOW and WARN.

All of these except possibly AIM and UNDERTAKE can go between a speaker subject X and that…will… (e.g. X promises that s/he will…). AIM and UNDERTAKE only allow an infinitive. For more about UNDERTAKE, see 281.Verbs with Unexpected Grammar 4, #f. For a discussion of AIM versus INTEND, see 114. Tricky Word Contrasts 3, #5.

Many of the verbs that allow that…will… also allow something else. EXPECT, HOPE, PLAN, PLEDGE, PROMISE, SWEAR, THREATEN and VOW can, in the right circumstances, freely accompany either that…will… or a to (infinitive) verb:

(d) The Government hopes that it will (or to) spend more.

The condition for the choice being free is both verbs having the same subject. If they do not (imagine it above replaced by everyone), only that…will… is possible.

ANTICIPATE, ENVISAGE and FORESEE can, when their subject is the same as that of the verb after them, freely accompany either that…will… or just an -ing verb. SEE is similar except that it needs a -self object before -ing, e.g. …sees itself spending more in (d).

Some of the verbs in the main list above allow an ordinary object to be placed directly after them. PROMISE with an object still offers a choice between to… and that…will…; EXPECT and INTEND with an object allow only to….

An object after ANTICIPATE, ENVISAGE, FORESEE, PREDICT and SEE needs a following -ing verb (see 232. Verbs with an Object + “-ing”):

(e) The Government anticipates the country spending more.

Verbs that always require any future-referring verb after them to be used with that…will… include IMAGINE (= suppose), SUPPOSE and WARN.

In all of the examples above, the future-pointing speech verb is in the active voice after its subject, the name of a speaker, and before that…will or equivalent. In an alternative usage, the speech verb is made passive and given the subject of the will verb, placed at the start of the sentence:

(f) Handwriting skills are expected to become unimportant.

As this shows, the will verb become is now in the infinitive form. A similar rearrangement is possible with all of the earlier-listed verbs except HOPE, SEE, SWEAR, UNDERTAKE, VOW and WARN. It always requires the future-referring verb to be an infinitive regardless of its time reference (see 299. Infinitives after a Passive Verb, #2).

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3. After Likelihood Adjectives

A very similar usage to that illustrated in (f) is with a likelihood adjective instead of an -ed participle between BE and an infinitive – for example likely instead of expected. Besides likely, the possibilities include able, bound, certain, destined, due, guaranteed, poised, prepared, ready and sure. For details of certain used in this way, see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #2).

Similar to these adjectives is about, an indicator that the future action expressed by a following infinitive verb is very imminent (see 269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #6). An even more imminent occurrence can be expressed either by adding just before about, or by replacing both about and its following infinitive with on the + brink / point / verge (+ of -ing), or with close to -ing.

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4. After Certain Conjunctions

The need to put a future-referring verb after if into a present rather than future tense is routinely covered in elementary English courses and is thus unlikely to be news to readers of this blog. Most such courses also mention a similar possibility after time conjunctions (after, as, as soon as, before, once, when, until):

(g) Problems will be encountered until repairs are complete.

However, these courses do not always mention that will is usable after some of these conjunctions to express a special meaning. A common parenthetical expression in American English is if you will, meaning “If I can express it like this”. Elsewhere after if, the meaning of either “agree” or “insist” is conveyed:

(h) The research will succeed if the participants will (= agree to) cooperate.

(i) Funds will remain low if staff will use (= insist on using) taxis.

After when, a future form commonly indicates a consequence:

(j) Click on the image, when a bell will ring.

This means the bell rings after the image is highlighted – when means “and then”. Compare this with the way the present-tense rings after when (with no preceding comma) gives it its more standard meaning of “after” or “while”. The will use can only end a sentence; the standard one can start or end one (see 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #4).

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5. After Future-Referring Urging Words

To urge is to put verbal pressure on someone (without commanding them) to behave in a particular way (see 195. Tricky Word Contrasts 7, #1). Words representing some form or another of this idea can be a verb (e.g. URGE) or a noun (e.g. a request) or an adjective (e.g. insistent).

An urged future behaviour can be indicated after a word of this kind by means of that and a future-referring verb in either the present simple tense or the “subjunctive mood”. Subjunctive verbs do not show tense and have only one form – identical to infinitives without to. Their usability after urging words is because they tend to be associated with futures that may never happen:

(k) Doctors recommend that everyone be vaccinated (or is vaccinated).

Common words like recommend include:

VERBS: ADVISE, ASK, BEG, DEMAND, DESIRE, INSIST, PREFER, PROPOSE, RECOMMEND, REQUEST, REQUIRE, SUGGEST, URGE (note that some urging verbs cannot be used like RECOMMEND, especially CALL FOR, ENCOURAGE, NEED, WANT and WISH).

NOUNS: advice, demand, desire, determination, insistence, keenness, preference, proposal, recommendation, request, requirement, suggestion, willingness, wish

ADJECTIVES: adamant, advisable, anxious, crucial, desirable, determined, eager, essential, impatient, important, insistent, keen, necessary, preferable, reluctant, vital, willing.

For more about English subjunctives, see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #6.

315. Ways of Using SEE

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The grammar and meanings of SEE are extremely varied

THE COMPLEXITY OF see

Small common verbs tend in any language to have an extensive variety of meanings and uses that makes them difficult to master quickly. Here, the variety of the verb SEE is given detailed consideration, with especial attention paid to usage that is idiomatic and/or very capable of occurring in formal writing. Although this is unlikely to provide instant mastery of the verb (see 202. Some Strategies for Learning English, “Practice Strategies”), it may reduce the time taken.

Of course, dictionaries too provide extensive information about small common verbs. My thinking in doing the same here is that dictionaries’ need to save space can make their explanations and illustrations frustratingly brief and therefore harder to appreciate and remember. In these pages, there is the benefit of not just extra space, but also the potential to link to further explanation elsewhere. Sometimes, there may even be an insight that dictionaries have overlooked.

Other small verbs that are similarly analysed in this blog are HAVE,  MAKE,  GO,  DO,  GIVE,  TAKE and COME.

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USAGE WITH JUST A SUBJECT

It is not common for SEE to be used in the active voice without an object. Where this is possible, the meaning is usually either the fundamental “perceive with the eyes” or its metaphorical derivative “understand” (see 7. Metaphorical Meanings).

SEE with the first meaning still mainly requires a mention of what the eyes see – the object of the perception. As with most object-indicating verbs in English, this requirement exists even when the nature of the object is obvious from the preceding words or the speech situation. In such cases, the object will normally be a pronoun like them or something:

(a) Searching for micro-organisms, Pasteur eventually saw them.

An absent object after SEE with the basic eye-perception meaning is most likely when the additional meaning of ability is present. In such cases, can is often present too:

(b) I (can) see but I don’t hear.

Even here, however, an object can often be added after SEE, for example things. This suggests that SEE used as in (b) is a kind of verb that I have elsewhere called “object-dropping” (see 8. Object-Dropping Errors). Note that not all noun expressions after it are objects: some, such as a short distance or some way, have an adverb function instead.

SEE meaning “understand” seems slightly more able to be used without an object. As such, it usually seems to involve the further meaning of “accept” or “recognise”. For a special use after as, see 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #4. SEE meaning “understand” without an object is again probably object-dropping rather than truly object-less (“intransitive”).

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USAGE WITH AN OBJECT

The perception and understanding meanings remain common when SEE has an object. There are various object types, each tending to suggest a particular additional meaning. Common extended meanings are:

1. Appreciate

Here, “understand” combines with “recognise the importance of”. A writer might say they see the problem. A typical conversational use is:

(c) I see what you are saying.

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2. Refer to/Consult

The extra suggestion here is of transferring attention, usually temporarily, from a primary object of interest to a secondary one, often in order to increase understanding of the former, or credence in it. SEE with this meaning is often in the imperative form (see 128. Imperative Verbs in Formal Writing, #4).

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3. Imagine/Visualise

Here, the object of SEE is clearly understood not to currently exist. It might be a fantasy, a fear, a desire, or a prediction (like objects of FORESEE). Sometimes, before or after the object, one hears the phrase in my (or similar, e.g. their) mind’s eye.

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4. Interpret

To interpret is to extract meaning from something perceived, such as a sight, sound, utterance, idea or situation. SEE with this meaning is often accompanied by an adverbial manner expression. Someone might say How do you see it? or X sees it differently. An adverbial as… before …X sees it is a common way of signalling that X’s interpretation follows next (see 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #4).

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5. Subjectively Perceive

If somebody says they see problems in a plan, they leave open the possibility that no problems really exist at all – that the observation is just an opinion. A verb suggesting perception of something that more definitely exists is RECOGNISE.

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6. Recognise

SEE may acquire this meaning if its object has the (or other particularizing word) instead of a(n) or a “zero” article. Someone looking at a crowd photo, for example, might say they see their brother. There may sometimes be difficulty separating “recognition” from the “appreciate” meaning above (#1).

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7. Experience

With this meaning, the object of SEE is typically an event, often expressed as an “action” noun (see 131. Uses of “Action” Nouns), e.g.:

(d) The country has seen exceptional growth.

Here, SEE resembles EXPERIENCE in expressing the passive-like meaning of being affected by the action of the object (see 21. Active Verbs with Non-Active Meanings, penultimate section). Literal perception could be involved, but it could also be absent, leaving a more metaphorical use.

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8. Witness

The object of SEE with this meaning is likely to be an occurrence worth reporting to other people, such as a crime or solar eclipse. There is a similarity to the “experience” meaning above, but more neutrality about whether or not the occurrence actually affected the reporter. More emphasis, in other words, is placed on the perception element.

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9. Meet

Both accidental and arranged encounters – mostly of the one-to-one kind – can be represented by SEE. The latter also tend to involve the idea of “consult”. Typical statements might be that someone saw a friend or has seen a doctor.

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10. Other

In everyday usage, SEE with a visual entertainment object like a film means “watch in full”, and in continuous tenses with a human object means “meet regularly to pursue romance”.

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OTHER USAGE

11. + Object + “as” or “to be”

SEE here means “believe” or “consider” but, unlike with the “subjectively perceive” meaning (#5 above), the belief is carried by the as or to be part rather than the object:

(e) Some language teachers see targeted production practice as (or to be) a waste of time.

Grammatically speaking, an as phrase in such sentences is an “object complement”. As seems freely replaceable by to be, just as it is when introducing an object complement of many (but not all) other belief verbs (see 92. Verbs with an Object + “as”).

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12. + “that”

An object of SEE is sometimes a statement starting with a conjunction use of that. SEE varies in meaning according to what follows that. With a simple sight or factual observation after that, SEE means “observe”:

(f) The company saw that sales were falling.

This kind of meaning probably exists within the conjunction seeing that, an introducer of an accepted point (see 230. Multi-Word Conjunctions, #1).

By contrast, with information of a less physically visible kind after that, SEE is a “thought” verb meaning “recognise”:

(g) The company sees that more funding is required.

In the right context, both (f) and (g) could be understood as reported speech.

A very different meaning of SEE that… is “ensure”:

(h) Anticipating a long campaign, Caesar saw that his troops had plenty of supplies.

Here, the object of SEE represents a subsequent result of the seeing rather than anything simultaneous. The use is especially likely within instructions (see 128. Imperative verbs in Formal Writing, #3).

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13. + Object + “-ing”

This is another combination with strikingly different meanings. A statement that economists see prices rising means either that they observe prices to be rising, or that they predict it. Only context can show which is meant.

The “observe” meaning of SEE before an object + -ing closely resembles the “observe” meaning of SEE before that, as in sentence (f). If there is a difference, it is perhaps that that… suggests the observation as a fact worth noting, rather than just a simple occurrence.

For more about the “predict” meaning, see 316. Future Verbs without “Will” or “Shall”, #2.

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14. + Object + “Bare” Infinitive

SEE is one of various perception verbs whose object can be followed by a base-form verb – actually an infinitive (to verb) without the to (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, #2). The base form after an object makes a meaning contrast with the -ing form there that is described in #13: whereas -ing suggests the verb’s occurrence is ongoing, base forms present it as completed. For the special use of see … be versus see … being, see 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1, #6.

The above contrast is also possible with the passive form of SEE (with the object as subject). Usually, however, the infinitive then needs to (prices are seen to rise).

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15. + Indirect Question

Verbs before an indirect question word (if, whether, how, who etc.) are usually “asking”, “explaining” or “knowing” (see 150. Verb Choices with Reported Speech, #2). SEE is commonly an “asking” verb meaning “investigate”:

(i) Use litmus paper to see if the liquid is acidic.

However, sometimes SEE is more “explaining” than “asking”, with the meaning of “observe”. This can happen before any of the question words except if and whether, with how being particularly likely:

(j) See how demand jumps during the summer.

Using how draws attention to something already visible, rather as with NOTE and NOTICE (see 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #5).

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16. + Object + Directional Preposition

Movement-suggesting prepositions – to, into, from, out of, through etc. – tend, when following an object of SEE, to make SEE mean “escort”. Thus, seeing someone out of a building means accompanying them as far as the exit.

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17. In Multi-Word Verbs

Some verb-preposition combinations work so closely together that they are best considered single object-requiring “prepositional” verbs (see 44. Troublesome Prepositional Verbs). Common SEE examples include SEE ABOUT… (= deal with), SEE INTO the future (= predict), SEE TO… (= attend to) and SEE THROUGH… (= recognise deception in).

Similar to prepositional verbs are “phrasal” ones, where the verb accompanies a preposition-like adverb (see 139. Phrasal Verbs), sometimes with no object. Common SEE ones are SEE … IN/OUT (= escort inside/outside), SEE … THROUGH (= manage till the end) and SEE … OFF (= successfully resist or help to depart).

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18. In Other Fixed Expressions

The following are common:

Seeing is believing (see 71. Gerund and Participle Uses of “-ing”, #2)
Let me see = …think about it
See red = become very angry (see 278. Colours, #4).
See the back of = end of
see-through = transparent

314. Words with Complicated Grammar 4

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Some words are usable in multiple (and often confusing) grammatical ways

THE PROBLEM OF COMPLICATED GRAMMAR

A major concern of this blog is the kind of grammar that is found not in “grammars”, but in dictionaries. Grammars focus on wide-ranging features like verb tense usage; dictionaries on word-specific requirements like the complexities of whole. Traditionally, these respective kinds of grammatical description tended to be called “grammar” and “usage”; my preferred terms are “broad grammar” and “narrow grammar” (see the rationale for my grammar practice book).

Narrow English grammar has various features that can make it difficult to learn. One is words that behave differently from what might be expected from the behaviour of words like them (see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1 and 250. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar). Another is words whose grammatical possibilities are so diverse as to be easily confused.

It is this second source of difficulty that the present post is concerned with. As the title indicates, other parts of this blog deal with it too (for a list, see 201. Words with Complicated Grammar 1). The approach is the same: in-depth consideration of the grammatical properties of a small number of problem words. This is a different kind of analysis from that in various Guinlist posts entitled Tricky Word Contrasts, where the focus is on meaning rather than grammar.

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PROBLEM WORDS

1. FACE

The verb FACE is mostly transitive (object-requiring). As such, it can express various meanings, of which the main ones might be illustrated and explained as follows:

(a) The cinema faces the hotel.

The message here is that the front of the cinema is directly opposite the nearby front of the hotel with nothing in between. FACE with this meaning is very unlikely to have the passive form: as with MARRY (see 201. Words with Complicated Grammar 1, #4) and ACCOMPANY, there is no problem keeping the verb active if the subject and object change places.

The expression of a permanent location is fairly typical of this use, but temporary ones are possible too, especially with a living subject, as in …turned and faced the crowd or …stand facing their headquarters.

(b) The economy faces an uphill struggle.

In this use, the object (an uphill struggle) represents a difficult future (see 316. Future Verbs without “Will” or “Shall”, #1). Faces might be paraphrased as “is going to suffer”. Surprisingly, this meaning of FACE is often able to be expressed as well with the passive form as with the active. However, the passive must be followed by with, not by: …is faced with an uphill struggle above (see 21. Active Verbs with Non-Active Meanings, #4).

(c) Unpleasant truths must be faced eventually.

Again, the object of FACE (here expressed as the subject of its passive form) refers to something unwelcome. FACE means “no longer avoid”, thereby conveying recognition and confrontation.

(d) Speakers will face detailed questioning.

The meaning here is close to “endure”. Other typical objects are severe consequences, a crisis, difficulties, opposition, problems and threats. Note also face the music, where the music metaphorically represents angry censure for having behaved in a proscribed way (see 241. Some Common Figurative Phrases).

In addition to these transitive uses, FACE has one notable intransitive one, usually in combination with towards…:

(e) The house faces towards the sea.

Towards suggests a large separating distance. Indeed, the noun after it may represent something too far away to be seen. If this noun represents a compass point, like (the) west, towards may be dropped, e.g. …faces (the) west. In this situation, including the makes FACE transitive again, but without it FACE remains intransitive: west alone is not an object but a directional adverb (see 151. Ways of Using Compass Words).

Finally, there is the phrasal-prepositional verb FACE UP TO. Its meaning is close to that of FACE in (c), but perhaps implies greater determination.

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2. FAIL

This verb sometimes means “not do”, sometimes “do unsuccessfully”. It also suggests that the doing is desired, so should not be used just as an alternative to not. It may go directly before a noun (an object), or a to verb (an infinitive), or be alone with nothing after:

(f) Failing an exam is not always a disaster.

(g) Hard work may fail to gain a reward.

(h) When persuasion failed, force was necessary.

A familiar object type after FAIL is a test of one kind or another, like an exam in (f). In such cases, FAIL means “do unsuccessfully”. In a related use, an examiner can fail someone by giving them a “fail” grade. Outside of testing contexts, however, a person who is failing someone is themself the unsuccessful one, their failure being to act at an expected level.

In one other object-requiring use, FAIL has a personal quality or ability as its subject and a human object, and it indicates non-achievement of the former by the latter. For example, Words failed X means X could not find suitable words to use. This possibility is the only object-using one that cannot be passive.

FAIL before an infinitive – to gain in (g) – normally means “not do (despite trying)”. The infinitive looks like an object of FAIL, but is arguably not one because of the tendency of FAIL with noun objects to mean “do unsuccessfully” rather than “not do” (see 302. Verbs with a Partner Infinitive).

FAIL used alone, as in (h), often seems to imply either an object or an infinitive, both identifiable from the surrounding words or the speech situation. In (h), for example, an infinitive like to motivate is implied. When an object is implied, FAIL might be classified as what I have elsewhere called “object-dropping” (see 8. Object-Dropping Errors). When an infinitive is implied, FAIL might be called “infinitive-dropping”.

Infinitive-dropping verbs seem to be a subset of verbs that can combine with an infinitive, just as object-dropping ones are a subset of object-taking verbs. Consider this:

(i) Rain failed to fall in summer.

The fact that the infinitive to fall here can be dropped after failed further marks FAIL as infinitive-dropping. However, if tended replaces failed, dropping to fall would be ungrammatical, which suggests TEND is not infinitive-dropping. The same logic excludes LIKE, NEED and SEEM as infinitive-dropping and includes CEASE, CONTINUE, START, THREATEN and TRY.

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3. “Average”

This word may be a verb, noun or adjective. The verb AVERAGE is transitive (object-needing), its object often a number expression. If such an object follows a number-implying subject (figure, temperature, time etc.), as in the temperature averages 20 degrees, the verb cannot be passive, just like other measurement verbs (COST, LAST, MEASURE, WEIGH etc: see 113. Verbs that cannot be Passive). However, with other subjects, as in the following, the passive becomes possible:

(j) Walkers average 6 km/hour.

A further verb meaning is “find the average of”. The subject is likely to be a human or robotic calculator, the object a number-implying word:

(k) The software averages the values found.

The noun average often has a following of phrase specifying either the average (e.g. an average of 20 km) or its possessor (the average of the distances). Alternatively, the noun may follow the preposition on within a phrase typically located at the start of a sentence as a sentence-spanning adverbial:

(l) On average, humans live for 72 years.

The adjective average often accompanies a number-implying noun (the average speed, average temperatures). Where it does not, it is likely to mean “ordinary”:

(m) The service was average.

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4. “Instruction”

This noun has three main meanings: “teaching”, “command” and “direction”. The “teaching” use is uncountable – usable without special words before it, and not normally combined with an or -s. It generally means the same as the related -ing verb instructing, so that it can be considered an “action” noun (see 14. Action Outcomes):

(n) Instruction takes place in the mornings.

As with most action nouns, the recipients of instruction in this sense can be indicated with of, e.g. instruction of the trainees… (see 31. Prepositions after Action Nouns 1). The content of the instruction is typically shown with in (…in safety procedures).

By contrast, instruction meaning “command” is always countable. The recipient is usually indicated with to, e.g. instructions to visitors…, while the instructed action is likely to be expressed with a verb in the to (infinitive) form (…to register their name).

The “direction” use of instruction is also countable. Directions are information about how to do something (see 128. Imperative Verbs in Formal Writing, #1). Instructions in this sense are not obeyed like the “command” kind, but rather followed. The recipient (often not indicated) can be shown with to or for, e.g. instructions to/for applicants…, while the target of the instruction is likely to follow for (…for completing the form).

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5. ADVISE

This verb is probably most familiar as a near-synonym of RECOMMEND (see 187. Advising and Recommending). The advice itself can take various forms:

– a directly-following that statement (…that action is taken)

– a directly-following -ing verb (…doing something)

– an “action” noun (…action)

– an object (representing the advisee) + infinitive (…you to do something: see 208. Verbs with an Object + Infinitive, #3).

In all of these except that statements, negative advice can be shown by adding against (the infinitive in the last example becoming an -ing verb instead: …advise you against doing anything). In that statements after ADVISE, the verb can optionally be in the “subjunctive” mood (be taken above), just as verbs can after various other future-referring speech words (see 269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #7).

An alternative meaning of ADVISE is “inform”. This usually has the information receiver as its object, followed by either that (+ statement) or of (+ noun expression):

(o) We wish to advise passengers that service disruptions are likely next week (or of likely service disruptions next week).

313. Adverbs Linked Closely to a Noun

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Most adverbs cannot associate with a noun, but a few can

ADVERB ROLES IN ENGLISH SENTENCES

Adverbs are usually said to modify, or refine, a particular type of information in a sentence. In contrast to adjectives, which typically refine noun or pronoun information, adverbs are mostly associated with a verb or an adjective or another adverb or an entire statement. Elsewhere within this blog, it is suggested that adverbs can also modify the meaning of a preposition (see 262. Adverbs that Describe a Preposition).

In view of all this, a reasonable generalization would seem to be that adverbs can add information about practically anything in a sentence except nouns or their equivalents. Yet, as the above title indicates, that is not the case. In this post I wish to examine how adverbs can say something about a noun. Not every adverb has this capability, but that is not really surprising when the same thing could be said about every other adverb capability (see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs, #2).

The total number of adverbs that can add information about a noun is not large, but it is perhaps greater than one would expect (and greater than implied by the rare illustrations that I have found in grammar books). My specific objectives here are to identify as many of the possibilities as possible, and to illustrate them copiously.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF NOUN-FOCUSSED ADVERBS

Noun-focussed adverbs tend, not surprisingly, to be located just before their noun. The problem is that adverbs before a noun are not always closely associated with it. Consider this:

(a) Obviously, water is not an infinite resource.

The adverb obviously here is saying something about the message of the entire sentence rather than just about water. This is recognizable from the fact that it can occupy a grammatical position elsewhere in the sentence, such as just before the verb is, without a change of meaning. The comma after obviously is also a clue, since sentence-starting adverbs with a following comma tend in general to be sentence-related (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs).

Here is an example of a starting adverb that does link only with the noun after it:

(b) Quite a mess was left behind.

The close association of quite here with a mess is easier to see if the entire phrase is placed in the object position after a suitable verb:

(c) Workers left quite a mess behind.

If quite was being used here in the ordinary adverb way, its position between the verb and its object a mess would probably not be correct because ordinary adverbs are in general unlikely to be correct there (see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs, #3). However, quite fits naturally into this position.

Contrast the use of quite in (c) with that of the manner adverb deliberately. That would have to go at the start or end of the sentence, or just before the verb left.

Slightly trickier to judge are adverbs before a noun in the “complement” position after a verb like BE. In the following example, could clearly be considered noun-focussed?

(d) The scale of the project was clearly a challenge.

There is no punctuation rule that could give assistance here, and meaning does not help: clearly appears to be as plausibly modifying the verb was as the complement a challenge.

A way forward in this case, perhaps, is to see how the sentence reads with the adverb placed before rather than after BE: …clearly was a challenge above. The change is obviously not a problem with clearly, but with quite it seems more of one:

(e) ?The scale of the project quite was a challenge.

Another problematic sentence type is where a starting adverb + noun are followed by a comma:

(f) Clearly a challenge, the scale of the project had to be reduced.

However, I take such sentence starts to be just a modified form of the complement usage shown in (d). This is because being can be added before the adverb without affecting the grammaticality or meaning of the sentence.

Sometimes, an adverb precedes a noun within a preposition phrase, e.g. in especially the sea. I discount this usage too, the reason being that the adverb can usually be repositioned before the preposition without a meaning change, thus suggesting that the modification is of the whole phrase rather than just the noun within it.

Finally, various adverbs can precede a noun placed directly after another noun within an “apposition” construction (see 77. Apposition, #1):

(g) The next planet out from the sun, obviously Mars, may provide evidence of alien life.

I would not take obviously here to be focussed on just the noun Mars. Again, it seems to be a variant of the complement usage since which could comfortably go before it, with is placed either before or after.

However, the adverb namely seems different – less natural-sounding with which is – and will be included. Other adverbs that seem like it are especially notably, particularly and specifically.

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MEANINGS OF NOUN-FOCUSSED ADVERBS

1. Degree Adverbs

Degree adverbs typically modify adjectives or other adverbs (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much). The main ones that seem able to modify a noun (usually a countable one with a) are quite and rather. Quite with nouns seems the more widely usable. Its meaning varies less than with adjectives and adverbs (see 231. Confusions of Similar Structures 3, #2), being more typically “completely” than “moderately”. Rather, by contrast, does mean “moderately”, but it tends to be restricted to negative-sounding nouns like a fool, or a mess in sentence (c) above.

Some grammar books also mention back-referring such (= “at the recognised high level”), as in:

(h) Nobody could accept such a (radical) suggestion.

An adverb (as opposed to adjective) nature of such in this use is perhaps hinted at by the frequent implication of a following adjective that, like radical, conveys the main description of the noun.

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2. Inclusion Adverbs

Two fundamental inclusion meanings are “excluding all others” – most typically expressed by only (see 251. The Grammar of “Only”) – and “surprisingly included” – usually shown by even. Both words easily meet the sentence-position requirements. They may begin like this:

(i) Only/Even children may use this facility.

The adverbs are associated here with the noun children, not with the later use this facility: the sentence is not naming the single or extra thing that children may do. The noun association can be present even with the adverbs after rather than before their noun.

If children were in the object position (e.g. after We accept…), the placement of only/even before it would not sound strange (though placement after it would again be possible too).

Of the various synonyms of only, just and solely seem usable like it, whereas exclusively and purely do not. To me, these latter sound unlikely at the start of a sentence and unusual just before an object. They seem to fit much better before prepositions and conjunctions (exclusively in summer, purely when the sun shines).

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3. Highlighters

Especially, notably and particularly say that their noun deserves more attention than others in the same class (see 54. Sentence Lists 1: incidental). Their use with nouns seems mostly to be in apposition constructions, where there is another noun just before:

(j) Some parts of the solar system, especially Mars, may provide evidence of alien life.

Usage outside of apposition constructions, for example with a sentence-starting noun like children in (i), seems possible with especially and particularly, but rare and usually with the noun before rather than after them (Children especially…). A possible reason for the rarity may be a danger of a double meaning – difficulty deciding whether the adverb modifies the noun or the whole sentence. One way to more clearly show linkage with a starting noun is to use in particular (without commas) after it instead.

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4. Precision Adverbs

Various adverbs are usable before a quantity noun to show how exact it is, as in exactly a kilogram, approximately a litre and easily a megabyte. Other relevant adverbs include almost, at least, nearly, perhaps, practically, precisely, probably, roughly and virtually (see 95. Making Statements More Uncertain 1, #1).

However, all the adverbs in this category may be less definitely noun modifiers than the kinds in preceding sections. It is arguable that they actually modify not the noun after them but the article a(n) before it. They are not usable if the same nouns are made plural, with a(n) absent. Plural nouns after them usually need a number in between (e.g. almost 3 kg.). Given that a(n) is sometimes an alternative to the number one (see 263. Uses of “One” and “Ones”, #2), it is difficult not to conclude that this meaning is what the adverbs are modifying.

The standard negative adverb not, which similarly modifies nouns only when they have a(n) (e.g. Not a word was spoken), may be discounted for the same reasons (see 310. Aspects of Negation, #1).

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5. Name Indicators

The adverbs namely and specifically can introduce a name-informing noun placed along with them between two commas or equivalent as the second half of an apposition construction:

(k) One era of the dinosaurs, namely / specifically the Cretaceous, was the time of Tyrannosaurus.

Namely is always usable in such sentences, whereas specifically is only possible when the noun before it is indefinite, usually with a(n) or one (see the end of 206. Ways of Conveying a Name).

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6. Superficiality Adverbs

Apparently, ostensibly, seemingly and superficially placed before a pronoun with any- (anybody, anyone, anything) or every- or no- can be understood as modifying it:

(l)  The villagers had apparently nothing to do.

This usage seems possible with the pronoun used as either a subject or an object or an object of a preposition.

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7. Negatives

The adverbs barely, hardly and scarcely seem as questionably able as not to modify a noun (see #4 above). However, they do seem more able to modify pronouns with any-:

(m) Hardly anyone disputes the need for action.