143. Subtleties of “-self” Words

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“-self” words can go after verbs or nouns to express a variety of subtle meanings

THE FORMS AND USES OF “-self” WORDS

Forms of “-self” Words

Words ending in -self – technically known as “reflexive pronouns” – are usually said to have three main uses: as a verb’s object meaning the same as the subject; to add emphasis to a preceding noun or equivalent; and after by to mean “without help”. Most mainstream grammar descriptions deal with these uses, though not always comprehensively.

My purpose here is threefold: to highlight some aspects of reflexive pronouns that I have not found described elsewhere, to assist understanding of the more complicated points by describing them in my own particular way, and to show how -self words are just as important in professional writing as in the less formal communication from which mainstream grammars mostly take their examples.

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THE OBJECT USE OF “-self” WORDS

An example of this use is:

(a) The parasite usually attaches itself to its victim.

It is clear that itself here, the object of attaches, means the same as the subject parasite. There are a number of interesting observations that can be made about the grammar and meaning of object -self words.

1. Observations about Grammar

The variety of -self words in the table above reflects the fact that as an object they must “agree” with the subject. For example, a plural subject needs themselves as object, a singular female one needs herself, and one sometimes needs oneself (see 204. Grammatical Agreement).

Most verbs that can have a -self object are also usable with an ordinary object without a change of meaning. For example, ATTACH, the verb in (a), could have an object noun like suckers instead of itself. There are, however, a number of verb types that are not like this. For example, CONTENT always needs a -self object followed by with (see 123. Prepositional Verbs Containing a Noun), and BEHAVE needs either -self or no object at all. For a full survey, see 268. Types of “-self” Object.

Object -self words must be distinguished from complements, which also refer back to the subject of their verb (see 220. Features of Complements). I think the reason why -self words are usually objects rather than complements is that they mostly follow a standard object-taking verb (defined in 8. Object-Dropping Errors) rather than a complement-taking one. However, they can also follow complement-taking verbs, such as BE or SEEM, thereby becoming complements:

(b) After the medication the patient was again herself.

This is a rather idiomatic use of -self words not often mentioned in mainstream grammars. It just means “normal”.

Another feature of -self word objects is that they cannot be passive-voice paraphrases as often as they can in some other European languages. For example, the verb DEVELOP could not have a -self word object in the following:

(c) When the reagent was added, a bluish colour… .

Possibilities here are developed or was developed (depending on meaning: see 201. Words with Complicated Grammar 1, #1), but not *developed itself (which would emphasise unusual effort).

On the other hand, revealed itself is possible in (c) (see 242. Words with Unexpected Grammar 3, #b). The reason seems to be the kind of verb that REVEAL arbitrarily is. Whereas DEVELOP is usable in the active form without an object noun (see 4. Verbs that Don’t Have to be Passive), REVEAL is not.

This does not mean, however, that all verbs like REVEAL can have a -self object instead of being passive. SEND, for example, in the letter was sent could not become sent itself. Perhaps the reason is that English -self constructions have a strong suggestion of independent initiative, and associating this with letter movement seems more ridiculous than associating it with revelation.

Yet an active verb expressing the idea of sending after the subject letters is not impossible in English. The way to achieve it is with the active form of a different verb, one possibility being went (see 27. How to Avoid Passive Verbs).

Mainstream grammar descriptions tend to illustrate verbs like DEVELOP with a similar (but not completely the same) kind of verb from everyday English – such as BATHE, DRESS, RELAX, SHAVE, SIT and WASH (though not CLEAN, which needs a -self word). Professional writing has numerous other verbs like DEVELOP, such as IMPROVE, INCREASE, MOVE, OPEN, PREPARE and STOP.

A further infrequently-made grammatical point about -self words is that they can be indirect objects as well as direct ones:

(d) Teachers must allow themselves time to cover material thoroughly.

Once again, themselves corresponds to the subject teachers. The direct object here is enough time. We know that themselves is an indirect object because it can change places with the object, with for placed before it (see 126. Verbs with an Indirect Object).

Finally, the use of -self words after imperative verbs is worth mentioning. A famous example is Know Yourself, a translation of words on an important temple in Ancient Greece. The -self word is always yourself or yourselves, proving that the unmentioned subject of imperative verbs must be you. For more about such verbs, see 128. Imperative Verbs in Formal Writing.

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2. Observations about Meaning

(I) CONTRAST WITH “each other”

A contrast that is often made is between plural -self words in the object position and each other/one another. Here is a sentence with one of the latter:

(e) In the market place, firms must compete against one another.

This implies competition among three or more firms (if the competition was between only two, each other would be preferred). What is not possible here is themselves, since that would mean firm A competed with firm A, firm B with firm B, and so on – an illogicality. However, English could also say in (d) …compete among themselves.

The -selves/each other contrast is more typically illustrated in English coursebooks by sentences allowing either one, depending on the meaning, like this:

(f) Large apes often groom (1) themselves (2) each other.

The first meaning here is that each ape grooms itself, the second that each ape both grooms and is groomed by another ape.

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(II) SPECIAL MEANINGS WITH PARTICULAR VERBS

Some verbs use an object -self word differently from the way shown in (a) above. Occasionally there is an idiomatic meaning:

(g) In the task, learners help themselves to a card.

Here help lacks its normal “give assistance” meaning: it means learners take a card independently instead of receiving it from someone else. Other combinations whose meaning is similarly not obvious include enjoy themselves (= “have a good time”), behave themselves (= “avoid bad behaviour”) and express themselves (= “communicate their thoughts”). For more examples, see 268. Types of “-self” Object. For more on ENJOY, see 8. Object-Dropping Errors and 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1, #b.

Another exceptional usage is with verbs like DEVELOP and WASH, which I said above normally disallow a -self word object. They can actually be used with one to suggest something extra. In the following, wash means “with new independence”:

(h) Small children quickly learn to wash themselves.

This suggests the washing was previously done by other people.

Another common meaning after verbs that normally disallow a -self word is “with determined effort”. Stopped oneself falling implies taking successful action to stop (unlike stopped falling); and improve oneself means not just getting better, but working very hard to do so. Other verbs usable like this include CHANGE, DEVELOP, MOVE, PREPARE and TIRE. A different meaning again exists with TRAIN: training is preparation for sporting or professional activity, whereas training oneself relates to habits.

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“-self” WORDS IN OTHER POSITIONS

1. After a Noun

The other main use of -self words according to most grammar descriptions is to give “emphasis” to a particular noun or noun-equivalent. One way is like this::

(i) Students themselves should * choose * what to study *.

The -self word usually follows the noun it “emphasizes” (here students). It can always go directly after and, if the noun is a sentence subject, it can also go in later positions, marked * in (i).

A word I prefer instead of “emphasis” is “contrast”, since that is the precise type of emphasis that -self words mostly show. In (i), students is being contrasted with other people involved in study choice, like parents and/or tutors. The idea of contrast results from the independence idea in -self words – the suggestion of separation from someone or something else. Even non-living things can be thought of as independent, for example by being automatic, and hence can be contrasted with a -self word. In the following, the application contrasts with human computer users:

(j) The application will download updates itself.

The contrast expressed by a noun + -self word can also be with a previously-mentioned noun. Sometimes there are contrasting verbs too:

(k) Parents FEAR for their children on busy roads. The children themselves COPE admirably.

A -self word after the repeated noun is preferred in Standard English to for before it (For the children, they… above – see 125. Stress and Emphasis).

Contrasts like (k) resemble those with but or on the other hand (see 20. Problem Connectors, #3). Indeed, one of these expressions could be added above – with or without a -self word. However, there is not always such equivalence: the noun emphasized by a-self word must also be mentioned in the first part of the contrast – children above. With no previous mention, no -self word can be used:

(l) Parents fear busy roads. Children, on the other hand, cope admirably.

In other -self word contrasts, there are contrasting noun ideas but no contrasting verb ones – the verb ideas are identical:

(m) Most people dislike insects. I myself try to avoid them.

The only additional link words possible here are similarity-showing ones like similarly or also. This noun-contrasting use of -self words is also possible in single sentences:

(n) Members of a category may (also) be categories themselves.

A third sort of contrast made by a noun + -self word is, like the first, with one or more implied rather than mentioned ideas.

(o) Pele himself would not have scored that.

(p) Freezing temperatures occur in the Sahara itself.

In (o), the contrast is with other footballers, in (p) other deserts. In addition, the underlined nouns are extremes: Pele was the greatest goal-scorer ever; the Sahara is the hottest desert. As a result the -self word means “even” and we understand that no footballer would have scored that, and all deserts have freezing temperatures.

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2. After “by”

At first sight, placing a -self word after by just seems an alternative to the independence-expressing use, since by can easily be added to (i) and (j) above. However, I believe that by does make a subtle difference, introducing the idea of solitariness or isolation alongside that of independence.

142. Grammar Errors with Passive Verbs

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Active and passive verb forms can be confused in a variety of ways for a variety of reasons

TYPES OF PASSIVE VERB ERROR

Grammar errors with passive verbs are incorrect forms or meanings or both. They do not include awkward or excessively formal use of correct forms, which are errors of style rather than grammar (see 100. What is a Grammar Error? and 69. How Computers Get Grammar Wrong 2).

A correctly formed passive verb has the “past participle” ending (-ed or irregular equivalent – see 97. Verb Form Confusions), usually after some form of BE. Examples (with the BE part underlined) are was helped, is understood, were being copied, can be taken and should have been known. Sometimes BE is replaced by BECOME or informal GET (cf. got married in 201. Words with Complicated Grammar, #3), or even dropped altogether (see 192. When BE can be Omitted).

For discussions of passive verb meanings, see 4. Verbs that don’t have to be Passive and 66. Types of Passive Verb Meaning.

Some passive verb grammar errors correctly follow the passive formation rule but are in a grammatically incorrect place or have the wrong meaning; others are simply incorrect passive forms (see 100. What is a Grammar Error?). More specifically, the following types are common:

WELL-FORMED PASSIVE WHERE THE ACTIVE IS REQUIRED

(a) *Malaria victims are suffered high body temperatures.

(b) *The cattle were moved.

ILL-FORMED PASSIVE

(c) *Following discussion, objectives will established.

(d) *The cattle were move.

In sentence (a), the need for the active form suffer is clear partly from the nature of the subject malaria victims (= a recipient of suffering) and partly from the presence of an object-like following noun (temperatures).

In (b), were moved is only incorrect if it fails to carry the intended meaning. It says someone moved the cattle. A different meaning possible with MOVE is self-movement – that the cattle in (b) walked. If this is the intended meaning, the active form of MOVE is needed without an object noun – moved (see 4. Verbs that don’t have to be Passive).

In (c), *will established is one of various incorrect possibilities that might be seen instead of will be established. Others include *will establish and *will be establish. Of the three, will establish is possible elsewhere in English (as the active voice equivalent of will be established, usable with a noun like objectives as its object), but the others are never possible.

A problem in analysing ill-formed passives is uncertainty whether the passive rather than active is actually intended. If the passive is intended in (c), then the error is a simple one of confusion about forming it. However, if the active is intended, will establish would show confusion of active and passive use, while the other two incorrect forms would indicate two errors: confusion about the form as well as the use of the passive.

In (d), the incorrect passive form*were move is again impossible in any context, since it breaks the general grammar rule that verbs after BE need either -ing or -ed (see 140. Words with Unexpected Grammar 2, #f). Uncertainty about the writer’s intention to use the passive is even greater here than in (c), since the active and passive forms of MOVE both fit grammatically into the sentence.

Possible reasons for passive verb errors are quite numerous, and may be different for different error types. Here I wish to list reasons in the belief that this will be helpful to both students and teachers of passive verb use (see 202. Some Strategies for Learning English). The approach is similar to that in 170. Logical Errors in Written English and 188. Causes of Common Spelling Mistakes.

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POSSIBLE REASONS FOR ERRORS

1. Mother Tongue Influence

Differences between a learner’s mother tongue and English are perhaps not the greatest reason for active/passive errors in English, but they are probably one. A likely influence may be on to verbs after adjectives like dangerous and useful, which some other languages make passive but English mostly makes active (e.g. useful to know – see 83. Adjectives before a “to” Verb). The error would thus be passives where actives were needed – like in (a) above.

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2. Poor Command of the Passive Form

Poor command of the way passive verbs are made is probably the simplest cause of passive verb errors. It will be indicated if inaccurately-formed passive verbs are noticeably often used in passive-requiring places. It is a plausible explanation of the errors in both (c) and (d) above.

The most likely reason for poor command of the passive form is that, although its user can correctly say how to form it, it has not yet been used often enough to be recalled quickly under the pressure of real-time communication. In other words, the speaker or writer will have knowledge of the correct form but not skill in using it (see 138. Test Your Command of Grammar 1).

Alternatively, poor command of the passive form could result from a misunderstanding about how exactly passive verbs are made in English. In sentence (d) above, assuming were move is intended to be a passive, the error is a dropped -ed. Possible reasons for believing -ed unnecessary can be found in the way English works as a whole. One is the tendency of many -ed endings to be pronounced so weakly in speech as to be barely heard (see 91. Pronunciation in Reading Aloud, #6). A repeatedly perceived absent ending could conceivably cause it to be considered unnecessary (see 144. Words that are Often Heard Wrongly, #6).

Another possible reason for -ed being considered omissible might be the ability of some verb spellings, such as open, to be an adjective as well, and so to be usable after BE without an ending – is open as well as is opened (see 66. Types of Passive Verb Meaning). Such adjectives will inevitably be mistaken for verbs sometimes, and might then easily generate the belief that -ed can be dropped from any passive verb, leading to its absence from verb-only spellings like move. For more on verb/adjective confusion, see 231. Confusions of Similar Structures 3, #4 and 283. Lesser-Known Facts about Adjectives, #3.

It is not just the use of -ed in passive verbs that might be incorrectly understood; the BE part might be too. This could explain the error in sentence (c) above, assuming a passive form is intended. Again, a practice elsewhere in English might be the cause, namely the use of passive -ed without BE directly after a noun in noun phrases, as in the ideas established (see 52. Participles Placed Just after their Noun).

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3. Confusion about some Passive Meanings

Sentence (a) above might illustrate this problem. I believe the use of the passive are suffered there is more than just a confusion of forms. Instead, it may result from a failure to appreciate the unusual meaning of this particular passive form. There are some others like it:

(e) *Sales were seen (= “were affected by”) a fall in August.

The problem with the meanings of SUFFER and this use of SEE is that their active forms already express a passive meaning. If learners of English have been led to believe that passive meaning must always be expressed with a passive verb, unnecessary use of the passive must sometimes occur, even before a direct object.

The correct use of BE SUFFERED is after the cause of suffering – high body temperatures in (a) – not its recipient. Other verbs whose active form has a passive meaning at least some of the time include HAVE, RECEIVE, MEET and UNDERGO (see 21. Active Verbs with Non-Active Meanings).

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4. Incorrect Belief about a Verb’s Grammatical Properties

As suggested above, using will establish in sentence (c) above is not necessarily an intended passive verb gone wrong – it could be an intended active form of a verb that should be passive.

There is a very good reason why the active form of ESTABLISH might seem possible in (b) to someone lacking deep familiarity with English: some quite synonymous passive verbs, such as will develop, are actually able grammatically to be either active or passive in any context (see 201. Words with Complicated Grammar 1, #1). The inability of ESTABLISH to be used in this way is not predictable in any way from its meaning – you just have to know it is like this and not like DEVELOP.

The power of synonyms to affect grammar choices is extensively analysed within this blog in posts entitled Words with Unexpected Grammar. The problem, those posts point out, is that although synonyms do often follow the same grammar rules, exceptions are very common and cause numerous errors. The error above with established may be one of those. It is true that ESTABLISH does also have synonyms that could not be used in the active voice in (c), such as OBTAIN or REACH. However, it will not be obvious to learners of English why ESTABLISH should be like them rather than like EMERGE or DEVELOP.

While the false grammatical belief behind (c) could be that an impossible active form is possible, the reverse – that an impossible passive is possible – might explain some errors like that in (b). Consider this:

(f) *Numerous problems are remained.

The verb REMAIN is of the kind that cannot ever be passive (see 113. Verbs that cannot be Passive). The false belief that it can be passive might result from its ability to be replaced by the passive are left without much change of meaning. Note that *are remained does not exactly parallel were moved in (b), since it is never possible, despite being formed in the normal passive way.

Another always-active verb that is easily used wrongly in the passive is CONSIST OF:

(g) *Water is consisted of hydrogen and oxygen.

In many cases, the reason for a false belief about a verb’s grammar is probably simple uncertainty arising from the sheer unpredictability of verb properties. However, here, as with ESTABLISH, there is again a probable influence from the grammar of other verbs with a similar meaning.

Both is composed of and is comprised of mean the same as consists of despite their passive forms. Even more confusing is the fact that COMPRISE can also, unusually, be used in the active voice in (g) (comprises without of). For more about COMPRISE, see 21. Active Verbs with Non-Active Meanings and 42. Unnecessary Prepositions.

141. Ways of Using MAKE

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Some uses of MAKE can be problematic even for advanced learners of English

THE PROBLEM PRESENTED BY make

Small verbs like MAKE are difficult to master in any new language because they tend to have many different uses and meanings, many of them idiomatic (hard to guess). Dictionaries are useful for discovering the possibilities, but they tend to present them as lists without the commentary that can add interest and assist memorisation.

It is this kind of commentary that I am attempting to provide here with MAKE, a word that is especially variable in both its grammar and its meaning. The approach is similar to that taken elsewhere in this blog with HAVE,  MAKE,  GO,  GIVE,  TAKE and COME. For discussions of various other small verbs, see 119. BE before a “to” Verb and 129. Differences between Necessity Verbs.

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FUNDAMENTAL MEANINGS (make + NOUN)

MAKE normally needs a following noun or equivalent as its “object”. The most basic kind is unaccompanied and represents a concrete idea, e.g. cars, lunch, a fire, a heap or a photocopy. The meaning of MAKE is then something like “produce by processing ingredients”. Usually the processing will involve combining, but it could also be the opposite, as in make hydrogen (from water).

The main problem with this definition seems to be the existence of some objects that look as if they ought to combine with MAKE but do not. For example, buildings (and their components, e.g. walls) are not usually made but built or constructed. Pictures and photographs respectively need DRAW (or PAINT) and TAKE.

Moreover, there are some objects usable with MAKE that do not always have it. Sometimes the choice is free: meals may be prepared as well as made, beer can be brewed and cars can be manufactured. Sometimes, though, the meaning differs: we mentally write a book but physically make one; teachers make exams, but students do or take them. Also notable is make a bed, where MAKE could mean either “construct” or “tidy”.

Similar to the basic use is MAKE with nouns of a more abstract kind. Many are derived from verbs of saying or thinking. MAKE seems preferred to DO with them despite the fact that they often seem to mean an action rather than a product (see 14. Action Outcomes). In other words, custom determines the choice more than logic (see 273. Verb-Object Collocations).

Examples are an (academic) argument*, an assertion, a claim, a comment, a comparison, a complaint, a connection, a contrast, an enquiry, an excuse, a fuss, a list*, a note, an observation, an offer, a plan, a promise*, a proposal, a remark, a request, a speech*, a statement, a suggestion, a threat and an utterance.

The nouns marked * here sometimes have GIVE instead of MAKE, suggesting supply of something made earlier (see 244. Special Uses of GIVE, #3). Threat also has an alternative: POSE when it means simply being a threat rather than communicating one. Note also that a plan can have FORM as well as MAKE, and a list DRAW UP.

Some nouns of saying/thinking cannot have MAKE: GIVE is often the right choice, especially with nouns expressing essay purposes (see 94. Essay Instruction Words), such as an account, a definition, a description, an explanation, an outline, an overview). Also found are EXPRESS (a belief, an idea, an opinion, a view), HAVE (a quarrel/argument, a discussion) and TAKE (heed, note). For more examples, see 173. “Do Research” or “Make Research”?.

With other action nouns, MAKE is again common. Examples (with alternative verbs in brackets) are an analysis (DO, GIVE), an assessment (DO, GIVE), an attempt, a connection, a decision, a discovery, an examination (CARRY OUT, DO), a judgement, haste, an impact (HAVE), an impression, a leap, a mistake, a move, progress, provision, a recovery, a start and a survey (DO). Exceptions include research and investigation (CARRY OUT or CONDUCT or, with research, DO) and various nouns requiring HAVE (an encounter, an experience, a try – see 116. Rarer Uses of HAVE).

MAKE also accompanies many abstract nouns that do not express actions. These include non-human sounds (most human ones have GIVE) – a bang, music, a noise, a sound, a splash – and financial nouns like a fortune, a loss, money and a profit. There is an informal use before sums of money (e.g. made $50) which means “earn”. Other common objects are amends, a difference, an effort, enemies, a face (= an expression), a fuss, friends, history, love, peace, a point, sense, time and trouble (CAUSE). Note that MAKE or CAUSE trouble suggests intention, while GIVE does not.

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OTHER MEANINGS OF make + NOUN

1. MAKE = “manage to reach”

This meaning often accompanies the + form of transport, such as the train or the flight. A famous example is in a Beatles song: … made the bus in seconds flat (= “very rapidly reached the bus before it departed”). Sports targets like the team and the final are another common type of object. One also hears make the (news)papers.

A related use is make it to (= complete the journey to), e.g. made it to Paris/the summit.

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2. MAKE Used like BE

In the examples above, MAKE is always used with an object. It can also be used with a noun that is not an object (i.e. a “complement”), changing the meaning noticeably. Consider this:

(a) Dogs make good servants.

Good servants here is the same as dogs, not something separately created by them. Make thus resembles are, its exact meaning being something like “are capable of becoming”.

MAKE can also resemble “equals”. Before it must be one or more part names, after it their product, like this:

(b) Eleven players make a football team.

This use is most fundamental in arithmetic (Two plus three make five). For a detailed discussion of complements, see 220. Features of Complements.

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OTHER STRUCTURES WITH make

There are various other possibilities after MAKE besides a simple following noun.

3. MAKE + Noun + Verb

EXAMPLE:

(c) Warmth and rain make grass grow rapidly.

Make here means “cause” (see 32. Expressing Consequences). The noun after is grass, and the verb is grow. The verb is an infinitive without to (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”). Dropping to is compulsory unless MAKE is passive (e.g. is made to do…). Failing to drop it is a common error (see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1, #a).

If the verb after MAKE + Noun is BE, it must usually be omitted altogether (see 192. When BE can be Omitted, under “object complements”). The omission will leave either MAKE + NOUN + ADJECTIVE (e.g. makes grass green) or MAKE + NOUN + NOUN (e.g. makes grass an asset – see 3 below). The only time when BE can be kept (still without to) is when it expresses an action (see 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #3).

With human objects, MAKE + noun + verb is likely to mean “force” rather than “cause” (see 65. Verbs that Mean “Must” or “Can”).

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4. MAKE + Noun + Noun (1)

In this use, the object of MAKE is the second of the two following nouns, while the first expresses a beneficiary of the making:

(d) Currency trading can make banks a fortune.

If the two underlined nouns here are reversed, banks is shown not to be the true object by the fact that for has to be added before it. In traditional grammar, it would be called an “indirect” object. MAKE here resembles “give”. For more on indirect objects and the verbs accompanying them, see 126. Verbs with an Indirect Object.

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5. MAKE + Noun + Noun (2)

EXAMPLE:

(e) Currency trading can make banks economic giants.

The difference between this and (d) is that it says what banks can become, not what they can have. In other words, MAKE is more like “cause to be” than “give”. In grammatical terms, banks is the object of make while economic giants is an “object complement” (see 92. Verbs with an Object + “as”).

In (e), the object complement of MAKE is basically a noun (giants), but it could, like all complements, also be an adjective, e.g. rich. In either case, the combination is the same as that described at the end of #3 above: we can understand a compulsorily dropped to be between the object (banks above) and object complement.

The ability of MAKE + Noun + Noun to be understood in two different ways sometimes creates a double meaning, e.g. make people tools (see 182. Structures with a Double Meaning 2, #4).

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6. MAKE + Noun + Preposition + Noun

When a preposition follows MAKE + object, sometimes it is part of the verb, creating a “prepositional verb” (see 123. Prepositional Verbs Containing a Noun). One common example is MAKE … INTO, meaning “convert”:

(f) Yeast will make fruit juice into wine.

This use is very similar to that in (e) above, without a preposition before the second noun. The difference is perhaps that into shows a more complete change: wine is not still fruit juice. In (e), banks that become economic giants are still banks (see 254. Tricky Word Contrasts 10, #2).

Another quite common preposition after objects of MAKE is of. In one use, MAKE means “create”, so that it can paraphrase sentences like (e), reversing the positions of the two nouns (… make economic giants of banks). Mostly, though, of follows an unchanging object after MAKE, e.g. make much/nothing of, make fun of and make an example of. For more about of in such verbs, see 160. Uses of “of”.

One other possible preposition is for, as in make amends for and make way for.

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7. MAKE in Multi-Word Verbs

Multi-word verbs are mostly comprise a common verb and either a preposition (forming “prepositional” verbs like DEPEND ON and COPE WITH), or a preposition-like adverb (forming “phrasal” verbs like TURN ON and BREAK OUT – see 139. Phrasal Verbs). Many have a more formal one-word equivalent (see 108. Formal and Informal Words). MAKE forms a small number of two-word verbs.

Three phrasal verbs are MAKE OUT (= “be successful” or “decipher” [+ object] or “falsely claim” [+ that…]); MAKE OFF (= “go away”); and MAKE UP (= “end a quarrel” or “compose a falsehood” [+ object] or “facially decorate” [+ object]).

Common prepositional verbs are MAKE FOR (= move towards or cause), MAKE UP (= be the parts of) and MAKE OF (= understand about). After passive BE MADE there are …OF + material (= comprise), …WITH + ingredients (= contain) and UP OF + components (=comprise) – see 196. Saying what is inside Things. Other combinations with a combined adverb + preposition are MAKE OFF WITH (“steal and carry away”) and MAKE UP WITH (= end a quarrel with).

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8. MAKE + Infinitive

Somebody who makes to speak shows signs of starting to speak but then stops. Hence, MAKE to… approximately means “unsuccessfully start”.

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9. Other Idiomatic Phrases

make a meal of… = spend too much time on…
make a fuss = emphatically object or disagree
make do (with…) = manage (with something imperfect)
make hay (while the sun shines) = make maximum use of a favourable moment
make a splash = do something that brings fame
make (one’s) mark = do something notable