285. Complexities of Question Words

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Grammatical aspects of English question words are surprisingly numerous

THE CHALLENGE OF QUESTION WORDS

Examining question words opens a window on a surprisingly wide variety of English grammar and vocabulary. Some of this will be familiar to experienced students of English. Most will know, for example, the difference between who and whom, and between what and which. Other aspects of question words, however, may not be so familiar – some, indeed, may even qualify as “exotic”. It is, of course, these wider aspects of question words that are the focus here.

Questions themselves can also be linked with a wide variety of grammar and vocabulary. Readers wishing to read about these in this blog are referred to the posts 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing,  105. Questions with a “to” Verb,  219. Wording next to Indirect Questions and 274. Questions with a Hidden Meaning.

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COMPLEXITIES

1. Word Class Variation

Despite the obvious similarities between question words, they actually do not all belong to the same word class (“part of speech”). Compare the use of how much in the following indirect questions:

(a) … how much gold costs today.

(b) … how much money gold is worth today.

(c) … how much gold varies in price.

In (a), how much is a pronoun. It represents not the noun gold after it but the unwritten noun money. It is the object of the verb costs, gold being the subject. In (b), how much is an adjective, giving information about the directly-following noun idea money. In (c), how much is an adverb giving information about the verb varies. It is not its object because VARY with this meaning allows no object.

The other question words can be placed into grammatical classes in a similar way. The main ones have the following possibilities:

Word Classes of the Main Question Words

Other combinations with how are usually adverbs if their second word is one (e.g. how quickly, how often) and adjectives otherwise (e.g. how quick, how old) .

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2. Equivalence to Nouns

The question word in indirect questions (not direct ones) can very often be paraphrased with a noun, for example reason for why, way for how and time for when. The main question word with no noun equivalent is whether (see 185. Noun Synonyms of Question Words):

(d) A major issue was the number of (= how many) attempts to allow.

In formal writing, there are some places where a noun is common. One is headings separating subdivisions of extended writing. For example, instead of How Languages are Learned a heading might say Language Learning Processes (see “Grammatical Form” in 178. How to Write a Heading).

Essay questions often replace a question word with a noun too. Unlike headings, though, essay questions of this kind usually need an extra verb in front in order to make their sentence grammatical. Thus, a question beginning Why…? might become Outline the reasons…, and one beginning How useful…? might become Discuss the usefulness… (see 94. Essay Instruction Words). The extra verbs, it will be seen, are typically in the base “imperative” form (see 128. Imperative Verbs in Formal Writing, #1).

Some essay questions have just an imperative verb and no noun equivalent of the question word. For example, What X…? might become Identify the X that… and How similar are…? might become Compare and Contrast… .

One other place where a noun is preferable to a question word is at the start of a sentence, where the indirect question is usually the subject of a verb (see 219. Wording next to Indirect Questions, #1). In the following example, what alternative form might be given to the question How much training is required?

(e) …is a source of dispute.

A possible beginning here is the amount/ quantity of training (that is) required.

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3. Non-Question Usage

Words that can act as a question word do not always do so. Most obviously, when and where can alternatively be conjunctions (see 64. Double Conjunctions). In addition, most question words can make relative clauses. Consider this indirect question:

(f) Historians wondered where alphabetic writing first emerged.

The underlined words here are recognisable as an indirect question because they begin with a word that can be a question word (where), they closely follow a word or phrase indicating a type of asking (wondered), and they have a noun role in the sentence (object of wondered) (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing).

Now consider (f) with wondered replaced by know the place. The word before where (place) would not then suggest asking (nor explaining nor knowing, the other possible question indicators), and the where… part would have an adjective-like role rather than a noun-like one, describing place. These are characteristics of the familiar type of relative clauses beginning with who, which or that, and they indeed indicate that the where clause above is similarly relative. Further confirmation is provided by the fact that where after location is replaceable by at which.

It is not just where that can be “relative” rather than question-asking (“interrogative”). All of the question words in the above table except how, how much and whether are the same (see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses). How usually becomes in which (e.g. the way in which, instead of *the way how). Whether does have a non-question use, but as a conjunction combining with or rather than as relative adverb (see 99. Meanings of “Whether…or…”).

Bear in mind, though, that a noun instead of a verb before a possible question word does not always produce a relative clause: an indirect question will remain if the noun is one of asking, like question, or explaining, like clarification, or knowing, like uncertainty (see 287. Speech and Thought Nouns). The indirect question will also keep its noun-like status: instead of being an adjective phrase describing the noun before it, it will be making a two-noun “apposition” structure with it (see 253. Descriptive Wording after Nouns 2, #3).

One other non-question use of indirect question forms is after the prepositions according to and depending on (see sentence [l] in 162. Writing about Classifications).

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4. Usage with “-ever”

Who, what, which, how much, how, when and where can combine with the suffix -ever or, more emphatically, -soever (how much becoming how[so]ever much). Whom and whose can only combine with -soever. Why links with the separate word ever.

An -ever word is always possible in questions, and often possible in other kinds of sentence too. In questions, it usually suggests its user cannot think of any possible answer (see 272. Uses of “Ever”, #2).

Why ever can only make questions (direct or indirect). However and however much can make questions or adverb-like additions to a longer sentence:

(g) However they tried, they could not succeed.

However here is an adverb meaning either “all” (saying all ways of trying failed), or “unidentified” (saying an unidentified way of trying failed).

Whenever and wherever can similarly make both questions and adverb statements, but in the latter they are conjunctions rather than adverbs.

Whatever, whoever, whomsoever, whosesoever and whichever can make questions, adverb statements or relative clauses:

(h) Whatever happens next?

(i) Whatever happens next, nothing will stop the process.

(j) Whatever happens next will be recorded.

The use of whatever in (i) is very like that of however in (g): its statement is adverb-like because it is not the subject, object or complement of the main verb (will stop), and the meanings of either “all” or “unidentified” are understandable. In addition, though, the -ever part of (i) carries the idea of unimportance, indicating that no next event will have any impact. This idea seems very common in all adverbial -ever statements (see 199. Importance and Unimportance, #8).

In (j), by contrast, the whatever part is the subject of the main verb will be recorded. The meaning of whatever is “anything which” (see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses, #4). Once again, there is a further meaning of either “all” or “unidentified”.

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5. Usage with Infinitives

All of the question words can ask a question with just an infinitive verb after them:

(k) The website explains what to do.

After why, however, an infinitive cannot have to (see 148. Infinitive verbs without “to”, #5).

Both direct and indirect infinitive questions are possible after every question word except whether, a maker of only indirect questions. For a detailed explanation of when to compose and use infinitive questions, see 105. Questions with a “to” Verb.

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6. Usage with Prepositions

Combinations like the following are probably common in most languages:

(k) By when should the parcel arrive?

By when here means not “at what time?” (the meaning of when alone) but “up to what time?”. All of the basic English question words can accompany a preposition in this way except how, whether, who and why. The equivalent of who after prepositions is whom.

An alternative, less formal preposition location in English is at the end (When…by?), e.g.:

(l) Who does this belong to?

(m) What did they do that with?

(n) Where do you come from?

(o) Which shelf is it next to?

In this use, whom is very often replaced by who (Who…to?). Although why cannot be used as shown, one of its meanings – seeking a purpose rather than a cause – is often expressed with What…for? (even though *For what…? cannot replace a starting Why…?).

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7. “Who’s?” versus “Whose?”

Both of these expressions can be either relative or interrogative. For the relative use, see 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #5. In the interrogative use, who’s is an abbreviation of who is – its apostrophe is not a possessive one. Its inclusion of the verb is means it can make a question without a neighbouring verb, combining just with a noun, adjective or adverb, e.g. Who’s next? (= “Which person is next?”).

Whose, by contrast, means “Which person’s?”. It must accompany or imply a separate verb. It can be an adjective describing a noun, e.g. Whose question is next? (= “which person’s question is next?”), or stand alone as a pronoun, e.g. Whose is next?.

The confusability of these two expressions mirrors that of it’s versus its (see 138. Test your Command of Grammar 1, #5).

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8. “How” + Adjective / Adverb

How is usable both with and without a following adjective or adverb. With one (e.g. How rich…? How easily…?), it means “how much” (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much), though the word much cannot be added in between (*How much rich…?). By itself, how enquires about the “manner”, “means” or “instrument” of a verb’s action (see 73. Prepositions for Saying How).

Appreciating this distinction is important for understanding essay questions. Consider this:

(p) How were Napoleon’s reforms effective?

Because no adjective or adverb follows how, it means “in what way?” The effectiveness of Napoleon’s reforms is accepted and just needs to be explained. However, if the question begins How effective…, how means “how much?”, indicating uncertain effectiveness that must be debated (see 94. Essay Instruction Words).

268. Types of “-self” Object

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Objects ending in“-self” do not all act in the same way

 THE COMPLEXITY OF “-SELF” OBJECT USAGE IN ENGLISH

Acting as an “object” after an active verb is one of various roles of -self words (“reflexive pronouns”) that this blog considers in an earlier post (143. Subtleties of “-self” Words). I point out there that different verbs work with these objects in different ways, but the examples are brief and the full range of possibilities is not specified.

Here I wish to survey object -self words in depth. I feel this is useful because they are surprisingly common in English but rarely seem to be used in exactly the same ways as their numerous equivalents in various other languages. My investigations indicate that English -self objects can accompany a verb in at least five different ways. With all of them, the -self object is a direct one, and not accompanied by any other direct object in the way that seems possible in some other languages.

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RECOGNITION OF “-SELF” OBJECTS

Most readers of this blog will know already what is meant by “object of a verb” (clarification, if needed, is available in 8. Object-Dropping Errors). In the following sentence, themselves is the object of the verb transmit:

(a) Some programs transmit themselves to other computers.

In considering the object use of -self words, it is necessary to appreciate that they can easily occupy an object position in a sentence without actually being an object:

(b) Gomez thinks herself that the theory is flawed.

(c) Saeed does himself no harm in making these observations.

Herself in (b) is not an object of thinks because it can be repositioned after the subject Gomez without a meaning change. The true object starts with that (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”, #1). This use of a -self word indicates a contrast between the noun before it (Gomez) and some other people or things – here people with alternative views (see 143. Subtleties of “-self” Words, final section).

In (c), himself is the wrong kind of object: “indirect” instead of “direct”. This means there is another noun near it that is the main object (no harm above), and the two can exchange positions, the indirect object then having a preposition (to above) in front of it (see 126. Verbs with an Indirect Object). Himself in (c) has the typical meaning of indirect objects: recipient of the event expressed by both does and its main object no harm (see 213. Special Uses of DO 2, #2).

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WAYS IN WHICH “-SELF” OBJECTS ACCOMPANY A VERB

As mentioned above, -self objects do not all work with their verb in the same way. In most cases, it seems to be the choice of verb that determines the kind of combination that -self objects make. The following are the main verb categories.

1. Verbs that Mean the Same with any Object Type

Verbs of this kind keep the same meaning with a -self object that they have with other objects. Most verbs with a -self object are of this kind. Transmit in (a) is an example: its meaning is unchanged regardless of whether it has an ordinary object like data or a -self object like themselves.

Other verbs that act similarly include ATTACH, COVER, EXAMINE, HURT, IMAGINE, INDULGE, INTRODUCE, OBSERVE, PHOTOGRAPH, PUSH, SEE and SURPASS. Note that INDULGE SOMEONE/ONESELF (= “enable…to enjoy”) loses its ability to have a -self object in the prepositional verb INDULGE IN (= “participate with enjoyment in…”).

A slight problem associated with this use of -self objects is that some verbs use something other than a -self word to express the same idea of doing to oneself what could also be done to others, and there is no reliable way of predicting which verbs have which properties. For example, HIDE expresses this meaning just by being used without an object (HIDE ONESELF does exist but means a particular type of hiding: covering oneself with view-blocking material). As a consequence, the properties of particular verbs often have to be individually memorised.

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2. Object-Needing Verbs Given New Meaning by a -self Object

This important category is well illustrated by the prepositional APPLY (object) TO (a problem). With an ordinary object, the meaning is “put on in order to mend” (see 261. Words with Complicated Grammar 3, #1). With a -self object, it means “work maximally on (a problem)”:

(d) Faraday applied himself to winning over his critics.

Note the need here for winning rather than win (see 35. Words Followed by “to -ing”). Other verbs that acquire a special meaning when used with a -self object include:

ACQUIT ONESELF (+ manner) = deal with a challenge (+ manner)
ANNOUNCE ONESELF = become noticed through a successful enterprise
ASSERT ONESELF = be assertive
CALL ONESELF (+ name) = choose to be known as (name)
CARRY ONESELF (+ manner) = move one’s body (+ manner)
DEPORT ONESELF (+ manner) = behave (+ manner)
DISTINGUISH ONESELF = perform outstandingly
ENJOY ONESELF = have a good time (see 8. Object-Dropping Errors).
EXCUSE ONESELF = leave with an apology
EXERT ONESELF = deploy extra effort
EXPLAIN ONESELF = justify one’s past actions
EXPRESS ONESELF = convey one’s thoughts and personality
LOSE ONESELF= become engrossed
OVERREACH ONESELF = fail through trying too hard
PLEASE ONESELF = act according to one’s own wishes
TELL ONESELF SOMETHING = assert something silently (to calm or motivate)
THROW ONESELF INTO SOMETHING= do something with maximum effort

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3. Verbs with a Removable Object

This verb type has two subgroups. One is what I have elsewhere called “object-dropping”: without an object the verbs imply one that could easily be added if required. With some verbs of this kind, e.g. COOK (food), DRIVE (a vehicle) and SMOKE (a cigarette), the implied object is not a -self one. With others, however, it is. Most indicate an action applied to the human body, such as DRESS, HIDE, LIE DOWN, SHAVE and WASH. Using a -self word after one of these creates a special meaning.

The other subgroup is verbs like DEVELOP, which are usable both with and without an object, but in the latter case have a passive-like meaning. For example, to say that a country is developing indicates that it is undergoing development rather than giving it to someone else (see 4. Verbs that don’t Have to be Passive). An unmentioned -self object after a verb of this type is not so strongly suggested, but again a -self object can be mentioned in order to express a special meaning.

The typical effect of using a -self object with either of these verb types is to associate the verb’s meaning with increased independence and/or special conscious effort. Object-dropping verbs tend to acquire the independence meaning. For example, adding themselves after dress, wash and lie…down means dressing, washing and lying down without normally-received help from someone else. HIDE is a rare exception in expressing a particular type of hiding rather than independence.

After some verbs of the second type, such as EXPAND and OPERATE, a -self object similarly indicates surprising independence (see 233. Structures with a Double Meaning 3, #4); but after many, such as DEVELOP, IMPROVE and STOP, it indicates use of an unusual amount of conscious effort. With a few individual verbs, a slightly different new meaning again occurs. For example, while TRAIN usually represents development of fitness or skill, TRAIN ONESELF typically represents development of desirable habits.

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4. Verbs that Typically Lack an Object

Whereas all of the verbs considered so far are at least sometimes usable with a direct object that is not a -self word, verbs in this small group can only replace a -self object with no object at all, the meaning being different in each case. An example is BEHAVE. Without any object, it means “act”; with one it means “avoid bad behaviour” or “not cause trouble”.

Similarly, EXCEL (= be the best) means with a -self object “give one’s best ever performance”. There is also an idiomatic use of WORK – WORK ONESELF INTO THE GROUND, meaning “work until too tired to continue”.

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5. Verbs that Typically Have a -self Object

Verbs in this category seem to be usable only with a -self object. They include:

ABSENT ONESELF: choose to be absent
AVAIL ONESELF OF: utilise
CONCERN ONESELF WITH: give attention to…
CONTENT ONESELF WITH: accept (see 254. Tricky Word Contrasts 10, #1)
DISTANCE ONESELF FROM: avoid close contact with…
HELP ONESELF TO: freely take
RESIGN ONESELF TO: unwillingly accept
TAKE IT UPON ONESELF (+ to verb): decide to be the person (doing something) (see the very end of 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE).

Underlining here indicates the surprising number of these verbs that have a typical preposition after their -self object, making them a type of “prepositional” verb (see 123. Prepositional Verbs Containing a Noun). As a result, any further verb straight after them needs -ing, not to – like winning in sentence (d).

Note that CONCERN and HELP are listed in this group despite the fact that they are also usable with an ordinary object. What qualifies them to be mentioned here is their need for a partner preposition, plus their substantially different meanings (CONCERN + ordinary object = “involve” or “worry”; HELP + ordinary object = “assist”).

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OTHER OBSERVATIONS

-self words can also follow BE, but of course they will be complements, not objects (see 220. Features of Complements). BE ONESELF means “act normally”. A few other complement-taking verbs allow a -self complement with a similar meaning (APPEAR, BECOME, FEEL, LOOK, REMAIN, SEEM).

An interesting verb that has emerged in recent times is SELF-ISOLATE (= “keep oneself away from others”). Giving a verb an object-like self- prefix instead of a -self object well illustrates how grammar (-self pronouns) can be reworded in a non-grammatical way (see 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar). It is quite rare, but could be a developing trend.

A much more common use of the -self prefix is with adjectives and nouns (see the end of 146. Some Important Prefix Types). Common adjective examples include self-conscious, self-important, self-made, self-perpetuating, self-possessed, self-raising, self-righteous, self-serving, self-sustaining and self-taught.

Noun examples tend to indicate actions. Common ones include self-advancement, self-delusion, self-denial, self-destruction, self-esteem, self-harm, self-importance, self-motivation, self-pity, self-preservation, self-referral, self-regard, self-reliance, self-respect and self-sacrifice. Other possibilities may be discoverable from the extensive list of action nouns offered in this blog in 249. Action Noun Endings.

263. Uses of “One” and “Ones”

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“One” has three basic meanings and is usable like a noun or adjective in various formal writing roles

FUNDAMENTAL FEATURES

Although description of one and ones is common in elementary grammar books, plenty of aspects are usually left to be covered at a more advanced level. However, I feel that even there some advanced aspects tend not to be included. This post looks in detail at one and ones, adding my own insights to the widely-recognised ones and paying, as ever, particular attention to formal writing. Some of the points also arise elsewhere in this blog, but for the sake of completeness are included here in a briefer form.

Grammatically, one may be a “determiner” (similar to, but not the same as, an adjective: see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”), or a pronoun. As a determiner, it always has a directly-following singular countable noun (e.g. one reason), so cannot be plural.

The pronoun one sometimes means “people in general”, but mostly takes its meaning from a plural noun mentioned in the surrounding words or understandable from the place of utterance. It may be alone (one is…) or have descriptive wording before and/or after (a red one, one on top).

When the pronoun use of one directly precedes its plural noun, of the (or similar: of various, of these, of those, of their etc.) is needed in between, e.g. one of the reasons. Sometimes this noun is replaced by a pronoun, and then of alone is needed (one of them). Sometimes replacement is with a superlative adjective, e.g. one of the best (see 305. Wording next to Superlatives, #5).

One before of + plural / superlative actually represents a singular form, e.g. one (reason) of the reasons (see 165. Confusions of Similar Structures 2, #6).

Ones, by contrast, is only a pronoun. Its plural noun cannot follow it, and descriptive wording is compulsory (red ones; the ones on top). Without such wording, one is replaced by some.

In all cases, one(s) fundamentally implies membership of a larger group, though this idea can be cancelled with special wording, e.g. There is (only) one Taj Mahal. An additional suggestion, also able to be cancelled, is “randomly selected from the group” (see 266. Indicating Alternatives, #5).

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USES

1. Referring to People in General

This familiar pronoun use of one is unusual in lacking a corresponding noun in the surrounding words or environment (see 211. General Words for People). Problems that it can cause for learners of English include distinguishing it from the similar uses of you, they and someone, and choosing the right pronoun when its meaning needs to be repeated (usually one, oneself or one’s: see 204. Grammatical Agreement, #2b).

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2. As a Number

Very little needs saying here about this elementary-level use. A determiner or pronoun, it adds the idea of “single” to the above-mentioned two basic meanings, so that the pronoun cannot be plural (except when referring to symbols, e.g. The number has two ones). In speech, it is often differentiated from other uses of one by being pronounced with more emphasis. In writing, an accompanying word like only or single can do this.

The pronoun occasionally has descriptive wording after it (e.g. one from all the possibilities), but rarely before. The determiner resembles the “indefinite” article a(n). The difference is typically one of emphasis or formality. For example, one instead of a in gave…reason highlights the “single” idea, and in a laboratory report one would be more formal than a before a measurement noun, e.g. one gram was added (see 67. Numbers in Spoken English, #3).

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3. Introducing a Class Member

In this use, one helps to name a member of a just-mentioned class. It usually occupies a new sentence. If other members are also being mentioned, one always introduces the first:

(a) Portuguese is spoken in some African countries. One (country) is Mozambique.

As this shows, one can be either a determiner (with some or all of the class name repeated after it) or pronoun. The latter, being less repetitious, is probably more common.

One used like this has different possible purposes, depending on what follows. If nothing or only a little more is said about the named class member, and no or just a few other class members are subsequently named, one is probably introducing an example. There is no surprise that one can assist exemplification, given that its “others exist” and “random selection” implications are also fundamental to examples (see 1. Simple Example-Giving).

On the other hand, if subsequent sentences just say more about the named class member (Mozambique above), then the randomness of this class member is cancelled so that it is no longer just an example. Some grammarians instead call it “particularization”. In speech, one might be said with emphasis. In writing, its meaning could be made more explicit by adding something like an important… or the main… before one.

Alternatively, if wording like (a) is followed almost immediately by sentences naming all the other members of the mentioned class (Angola, Cape Verde etc.), then one would have a specifying purpose, as defined within these pages in 117. Restating Generalizations More Specifically. The subsequent sentences would be as described in 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists. There is a subtype of this use in which one combines with a later the other to name a difference within a previously-identified pair:

(b) There were two balls. One was red, the other blue.

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4. Introducing Other Kinds of Information

In this use, it is not one that indicates the purpose of its sentence, but a noun after it:

(c) Railways are a more desirable transport means than motor vehicles. One reason is…

Once again, one may or may not be indicating the start of a list. The determiner use shown above also, perhaps, implies that the writer does not know the entire list. To suggest such knowledge, one of the reasons seems preferable. Using a instead of one is also possible, suggesting the writer is unsure whether other possibilities exist.

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5. Replacing an Ordinary Noun

The pronoun one can represent other nouns besides class names:

(d) The box contained balls. Participants chose one.

Here, the noun represented by one (balls) is mentioned before it. Later mention is also possible, e.g. Participants chose one of several balls.

The noun-replacement use of one resembles the number use in that it adds the idea of “single” to the basic suggestions of “not all” and “random”. The difference is that it is less emphatic about this idea, its plural being ones or some rather than another number. However, this distinction is not always clear, and sometimes the number meaning has to be indicated more clearly by adding only.

Used alone, as in (d), one cannot follow a(n) or the (or similar). However, with descriptive wording in front, one of these is compulsory, with or without descriptive wording after, e.g. a/the red one (below). By contrast, if there is only descriptive wording after one, the choice before it must be between the (e.g. the one below) and nothing at all (one below). The one in this situation sometimes needs replacement by that (e.g. that below: see 63. Constraints on Using “the one/s”).

The plural of one in (d) is some. As mentioned earlier, ones is only possible when descriptive wording is also present. Regardless of whether this wording is before or after, sometimes the ones must be used, sometimes just ones – the plural meaning rules out a(n). Replacement of the ones is again sometimes necessary – by those instead of that – when the descriptive wording comes after.

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6. Facilitating Adjective Use

There are two notable situations where an adjective requires a/the…one or (the)…ones. The first is when the adjective needs to be in a “complement” position (with the noun it describes placed earlier and separated by BE or other link verb), but is the kind of adjective that can only describe a noun after it. Consider the following standard adjective complement:

(e) Among causes of death, heart disease is well-known.

Here, the adjective well-known is describing heart disease before it. Very many adjectives can be used in a similar way (see 220. Features of Complements, #2). However, there are exceptions. For example, leading, though suitable in terms of its meaning as a direct alternative to well-known, would not fit in grammatically.

There is no logical reason why leading should not be usable by itself after BE: it just belongs to a smallish group of English adjectives that have this restriction. Most grammar books list the main ones, and it is helpful that particular types of meaning tend to be involved. For a survey in this blog, see 184. Adjectives with Limited Mobility.

The problem with leading, however, can be overcome by combining it with a…one, producing …is a leading one. Even regular adjectives like famous could combine with one in this way. Note, though, that not every limited-mobility adjective can combine with one(s). The above-mentioned post gives some indication of which can. Other common ones include alternative, former, future, main, only, previous and upper.

The second notable situation requiring one(s) after an adjective is where the sentence position occupied by the adjective needs a noun as well, but mentioning the noun associated with the adjective would sound repetitious:

(f) Of the available options, a suitable one was hard to find.

Here, the adjective suitable needs a following noun because it occupies the noun position of subject (of was), yet adding the noun it describes (option) would repeat a recent mention. One solves the problem because it is able as a pronoun to occupy noun positions.

In not allowing lone adjectives in noun positions, English differs from some other languages. However, English does allow some exceptions to this rule, especially adjectives in the comparative or superlative form: the most suitable above could keep or drop one (see 102. Adjectives with no Noun 2, #1).

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7. Other Uses

One time implies selection from multiple occurrences – unlike once, which leaves the existence of other occurrences unclear (see 227. Time Adverbs, #1, II).

After BE, one can be an adjective meaning “united” (People were one in opposing…), but cannot be a number (see 184. Adjectives with Limited Mobility, #1).

The one can mean “the only one” before a noun (the one problem is…) and “the special one” by itself (He is the one).

Using one before someone’s name (e.g. one Emily Martin) suggests, like a(n) and a certain, that the addressee is unfamiliar with the person in question (for a discussion of certain, see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #2). In addition, however, one suggests that the person is rather strange or unusual.

The + adjective + ones (e.g. the young ones) with all-referring general meaning is more positive-sounding than just the + adjective (as discussed in 6. Adjectives with no Noun 1). It perhaps implies that its user belongs to the mentioned group.

234. Adjective and Pronoun Uses of “that”

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“That” the singular of “those” has some surprising uses

KEY FEATURES

Dictionaries usually have multiple entries for that, thus showing it not to be a single word. It is indeed a prime example of what I have elsewhere called a “multi-use” word: it can be an adjective, pronoun, adverb or conjunction, and its pronoun uses are of two very different kinds (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”).

The uses that I wish to focus on in this post have three notable features in common: they both have the /æ/ vowel (rhyming with sat) rather than the weak /ә/ (as in the); they are both closely related to this; and they can both be put into the plural form those. This focus means that one of the two pronoun uses of that – as a “relative” resembling which – is excluded (see instead 34. Relative Pronouns and Commas), but the use of those is included. 

Of course, adjective and pronoun uses of that receive plenty of attention at fairly low levels in English coursebooks. The reason for their inclusion in this blog, which is generally about more advanced or rarely-encountered topics, is that they have uses which are either rarely mentioned or covered under other grammatical headings. My hope is that placing everything together here will lead to a greater understanding of the essence of these words.

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ADJECTIVE USES

The adjective-like use of that is in combination with a following noun (or equivalent). Of course, if the noun is plural, that must change to those (See 204. Grammatical Agreement, #2a). This form variability is an indication that that is actually rather different from most English adjectives, as they do not usually change their form according to whether their noun is singular or plural. In fact, most grammarians place that in a special class of adjective-like words called “determiners”, other members of which include the, this, their and much. For more examples, see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”.

One major use of adjective-like that in professional writing is referring back to any part of an immediately-preceding statement except its subject:

(a) Early scientists believed fire came from “phlogiston”, an invisible substance inside combustible bodies. That idea was discarded after the discovery of oxygen.

Here, that idea refers back to the belief of early scientists. It is an example of what I have elsewhere called “repetition for linking” (see 24. Good and Bad Repetition). One could actually use that by itself (i.e. as a pronoun), but using it with a noun is usually recommended in the interests of clarity.

An important question concerning back-referring that is how it differs from the very similar usage of this (see 28. Pronoun Errors, #2). With other uses of that, of course, most students of English learn that the difference is usually one of distance in space or time: this indicating near the speaker, that further away. These ideas can partially explain the difference with respect to the back-referring use.

Choosing between this and that according to distance in time seems as possible with the back-referring use as it is in everyday English. In sentence (a), for example, part of the reason for preferring that to this is the historical nature of the idea of phlogiston (for a further example, see 193. A Test of Formal Language Use, #24). By contrast, the space difference seems with the back-referring use to be often metaphorical, indicating not a physical distance but an intellectual one: sentence (a) says the writer is as distanced in agreement with the idea of “phlogiston” as s/he is in time.

A second notable use of adjective-like that actually requires the plural those. The subsequent plural noun is usually followed by a “defining” relative clause or preposition equivalent:

(b) “That” is one of those small words with multiple uses.

Those here signals both that the following noun idea is a subgroup and that the addressee has been familiar with it for some time. Alternative meanings are created by replacing the underlined part of (b) with the following:

THE small words…: indicating a subgroup and assuming its familiarity through a recent mention.

VARIOUS small words…: indicating a subgroup and assuming no addressee familiarity with it.

For more on assumed familiarity, see 235. Special Uses of “the”, #1.

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PRONOUN USES

That by itself has more uses than the adjective-like version in formal writing. As indicated above, it too can refer back. However, like the adjective (and like this) it cannot usually refer further back than to the previous sentence. Reference further back can be done instead with the above, the previous… or, possibly, all this (never all these) (see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #4).

The following are notable additional uses:

1. In Fixed Phrases

English has some words that are combined often enough with that for the two together to qualify as a “collocation” – a frequently-occurring word partnership with a single overall meaning. Most tend to be classified grammatically as “connectors” (see 259. Multi-Word Connectors).

Perhaps the most familiar connector phrase is after that, an introducer of a new event or stage in a series, especially one in the past (see 282. Features of History Writing, #5) or the future (new stages in general instruction and process descriptions tend to prefer after this: see 210. Process Descriptions, #2). Another common connector is that is to say (= in other words), often abbreviated to i.e. (see 130. Formal Abbreviations). That cannot be replaced by this.

Other connectors are with that, upon that, at that and that said. The first three are again perhaps most typical in historical and fictional narrative. They indicate that an event described after them follows on immediately from one described before:

(c) Suddenly the stage was enveloped in smoke. With that, the curtain descended.

With that shows closeness in time rather than space, rather like with before a participle at the end of a sentence (see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #7). Upon that seems more likely when the two events have the same subject (see 289. Exotic Grammar Structures 8, #4).

At that is usable as both a connector and a more ordinary adverb. The former means “in immediate response” and as such usually introduces a description of consequential human or animal behaviour:

(d) The team announced that a wonder cure had been found. At that, everyone applauded.

As an ordinary adverb, at that usually follows an adjective or adverb, adding a second good or bad feature to a just-mentioned one:

(e) The work was accomplished quickly, and cheaply at that.

Here, cheaply is highlighted as a good feature added to the good one quickly. An example of an added bad feature might be …an illness, and a severe one at that. The …at that addition often follows a comma + and, but it could follow a full stop without and.

That said does actually contain a participle, and it can also have with in front. Its meaning is very like that of nevertheless, introducing a statement that sounds contradictory after a point before it:

(f) Consumers will generally seek to purchase goods offering the best value for money. That said, they will pay a very high price for something that they desperately desire.

Other notable fixed expressions are the questions is that all? and how about that? (see 274. Questions with a Hidden Meaning, #4 and #21).

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2. Marking an End

In speech, that + BE often announces the end of a topic, section or performance. That’s all and That’s it are common ways of doing this informally and briefly. That’s that additionally implies that further discussion is useless or forbidden. It can also highlight completion of a task, along with resultant satisfaction.

In oral presentations, where the audience lack time to think about the overall structure of what they are trying to understand, so that they need plentiful “signpost” language to help them, that is (or those are) before the name of a just-finished topic is useful for signposting its end:

(g) So that is (or those are) the main argument(s) against the proposal. Now what can be said in favour?

For details of this and other types of oral signposting, see 186. Language in Oral Presentations.

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3. Replacing “the one(s)”

The one(s) is a pronoun that can replace a countable noun representing one or more obvious members of a wider group (see 63. Constraints on Using “the one/s”). It normally needs descriptive wording before and/or after it (e.g. the red one; the ones in the middle) in order to identify the exact group members meant.

That/Those can only replace the one(s) when the descriptive wording comes after, e.g. the ones/those in the middle. Such replacement is particularly common in professional writing because it sounds more formal. One type of sentence where it is very likely to be found is comparisons like the following:

(h) The growth rate in the North is higher than that in the South.

For more on such sentences, see 170. Logical Errors in Written English, #3.

There is one situation where the meaning of the one can only be expressed by that or an ordinary noun: where the noun in question is uncountable, e.g. information. For details, see the above-mentioned post on the one/s.

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4. Referring to People in General (“those” only)

If those is directly before a preposition or wh- without representing any noun idea from a previous sentence or external context, it usually means people in general. This is the intended meaning in the following proverb, also quoted in 211. General Words for People:

(i) Those who live by the sword die by the sword.

For those here not to mean people in general, there would need to be a mention in the previous sentence of a subgroup of people such as robbers. Those would then mean “the ones” (its singular form being the one, not that).

The “people in general” meaning of those is also possible in sentences like the following:

(j) Those who want value for money are consumers.

Without a context, those here could be referring back to a just-mentioned specific human group, but it could also just mean people in general, in which case who… would be introducing a subgroup equating to consumers at the end. Organizing a sentence in this way says unambiguously that its primary information is at the end after are (or other form of BE).

Many sentences can use BE as a secondary verb near the end, as in (j), in order to highlight key information like consumers. However, most need to begin with what. Those who is necessary instead if the key information is a group of people. For more details, see 145. Highlighting with “What…” Sentences.

211. General Words for People

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Various words can refer to people in general, but they are not always interchangeable

THE VARIETY OF POSSIBILITIES

English has numerous ways of referring to all people in the world. Consider, for example, what might be possible in the blank spaces in the following:

(a) … who lives by the sword dies by the sword.

(b) … can expect to live for around 80 years.

Wording for people in general that could fill the blank space in (a) includes he, one, someone (or somebody), anyone (or anybody), everyone (or everybody) and a person, but not a human (being) or humanity. In addition, who(so)ever could replace who and the blank space together.

With the verb in (a) made plural (live), the possibilities include they, those or people, but not humans, we or you.

In (b), the blank space could have one, people, we, you, everyone or humans, but not he, humanity, a person, those, someone or anyone.

In this post I wish to consider what differentiates the various expressions listed above. As so often with near-equivalent expressions, the differences seem to be determined as much by grammar as by meaning. Key grammatical factors are whether or not the word for people is made into a longer noun phrase by words placed after it, and whether or not it is in the main part of its sentence.

For advice on referring to general subgroups of people, see 6. Adjectives with Noun 1: People-Naming.

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THE EFFECT OF WORDS ADDED AFTER

The differences between the possibilities in (a) and (b) above may result primarily from the fact that the people-referring expression in (a) is the start of a longer “noun phrase”, while that in (b) is not.

The added words that create the noun phrase in (a) are who lives by the sword. A noun phrase is recognisable because all the words together can replace a single noun in the sentence – the subject of the main verb dies. Added words beginning with who (or which or that) are a common way to expand a noun or pronoun into a noun phrase – but not the only one (see 252. Descriptive Wording after Nouns 1).

Sentence (b), by contrast, has no added words: a people expression like one comes directly before the verb (can expect) of which it is the subject.

The people expressions that are possible in sentences like (a) differ from each other in the following ways. He was common until recently, but is avoided by many English speakers today because they think it gives insufficient recognition to women. They has a poetic feel. One sounds very formal. A person is quite rare and may sound slightly unnatural to some. Anyone, everyone and who(so)ever are emphatic, highlighting a lack of exceptions. Someone can be ambiguous, because it can refer to an individual as well as to everyone. Perhaps the most preferred options today are the plurals people and those.

There are some hidden subtleties within these possibilities. One does not always mean “people”: in appropriate contexts it means “a single unidentified member of a particular group”. For example, if we say one believes… after an earlier mention of London citizens, it would probably mean “a single unidentified London citizen” (see 263. Uses of “One” and “Ones”). This kind of one has to be repeated with he, she or they, not one (see 204. Grammatical Agreement, #4).

Those can only mean “people in general” when it starts a longer noun phrase (see the end of 234. Adjective and Pronoun Uses of “that”). Even there, however, it does not always have that meaning: it can also mean “people of a particular group”, making it replaceable by the ones. The group must be obvious from either the situation where the statement is made, or the surrounding (usually previous) words:

(c) Immigrants can struggle to find work. Those who succeed often have an unusual skill.

Those here refers to the previously-mentioned immigrants rather than people in general.

People meaning “people in general” at the start of a noun phrase cannot have the. Although the is sometimes possible before a generic noun phrase (see 89. Using “the” with General Meaning, #7), before people in this position it changes the meaning from all people (generic) to some (specific).

The people words that are not possible in (a) are ruled out for the following reasons. You excludes the speaker from the general group, and is hence not a way of indicating everyone in the world. We includes the speaker, but in a small subgroup. Humans implies a contrast with non-humans, a meaning that is obviously not relevant. However, this meaning is relevant in some sentences like (a), and humans is then possible. Humanity is not commonly expanded into a noun phrase.

Of the expressions usable without added words, as illustrated in sentence (b), we and you are possible because they no longer exclude anyone. A common fixed expression with you is What can you do? (see 274. Questions with a Hidden Meaning, #18). However, we and you are often considered inappropriate in professional writing (see 46. How to Avoid “I”, “We” and “You”).

One in sentences like (b) is, like its use in (a), quite formal-sounding, and avoided by many for that reason. Everyone is again emphatic. Humans is possible in (b) because its suggested contrast with other living creatures fits there. However, in some sentences like (b), humans will again be unsuitable.

People again seems the most likely choice in sentences like (b). Once more, it does not usually follow the. This is because the people without added words means “people who are not the government” rather than “everyone” (see 235. Special Uses of “the”, #9).

Of the words that are not possible in sentences like (b), someone and a person are ruled out because they lose their general reference, being more indicative of a particular individual. A possible reason why humanity is unlikely in (b) is that it seems typically to make sentences about human actions rather than their characteristics. Since sentences like (b) must sometimes be of this kind, they will sometimes allow humanity.

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THE DIFFERENCE MADE BY SENTENCE ROLE

In sentence (a) above, the general people word is the subject of the main verb dies (who being the subject of the secondary verb lives). However, the people word can easily be made the subject of the secondary verb by means of a conjunction, like this:

(d) If one lives by the sword, one dies by the sword.

One consequence of this change is that the people word (one) is no longer starting a longer noun phrase – it is more like the use of one in (b), and indeed can similarly also be you but not he or those. However, (d) is not completely like (b) because it also allows someone instead of one. If someone is used, any repetition of it has to be they, not one.

The possibility of using someone between a conjunction and a secondary verb is quite common. Here is another example, this time involving the conjunction before:

(e) Before someone runs a marathon, they should train extensively.

However, there are cases where someone is not an alternative to one in sentences like (d) and (e):

(f) However one looks at it, the future is bleak.

Someone here would be referring to a particular unidentified person rather than people in general. The cause of this change might be that the main part of the sentence (…is bleak) refers to a particular time, not all times. Alternatively, the cause may be the particular conjunction however, a negative word meaning “it does not matter how” (see the end of 199. Importance and Unimportance). Just as negative words usually require some to be changed to any, however in this sense may require someone to be changed to anyone. Certainly anyone is a possible way of referring to people in general in (f).

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OTHER DIFFERENCES THAT DEPEND ON INHERENT MEANING

As mentioned above, the word humans in any structure suggests a contrast with non-humans. However, it is rarely compulsory where this kind of contrast is possible. In sentence (b) above it is easily replaced by one. Consider, however, the following:

(g) Humans can trace their ancestry to Africa.

Replacing humans here with one (and their with one’s) would sound strange. The reason is perhaps that the typical meaning of one, emphasising the speaker’s inclusion in the general group, is irrelevant to the kind of statement being made (the speaker is probably not the actual person who has done the mentioned tracing). A possible reason why one can go in (b) is that the statement there (about the human life span) more personally involves the speaker.

The word human is sometimes misused because it can be either a noun or an adjective. As a noun, it is countable and hence in generalizations needs either a(n) before it or -s after (see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”). It is a near-synonym of various other nouns, including countable a human being and uncountable humanity and humankind (plus the increasingly unpopular man and mankind). As an adjective, human needs a partner noun, as in human beings, human history or human remains.

Because human can be either a noun or an adjective, both forms are correct in positions allowing either type of word, such as “complements” after BE: one can say either …is human (adjective) or …is a human (noun). Of course, …is a human being is also possible, the complement there being the noun a…being, with human describing it as an adjective. To use an uncountable form like humanity after is a, you have to insert a countable noun + of: usually …a member of… (see 180. Nouns that Count the Uncountable).

Whereas humans suggests a contrast with non-humans, the literary word mortals (see 166. Appropriacy in Professional English) suggests one with immortals like spirits and gods. Even more specialised is persons, the preferred general people word in legal contexts (see 195. Tricky Word Contrasts 7, #6).

Generic we (and its derivatives, e.g. us) is indicated above to resemble one in all sentence types, but to more strongly emphasise the speaker’s inclusion in the general group. Here is a further example:

(g) Most of us need 8 hours of sleep each night.

This use of we/us differs from the non-generic one not just in being more general but also in representing neither a previously-mentioned noun nor one that is obvious from the surroundings – there is no reference to context at all. There is a similar non-contextual use of they, even though they, in excluding the speaker, does not refer to absolutely all people:

(h) They say that global warming will cause suffering.

(i) They never sell diamonds cheaply.

204. Grammatical Agreement

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English has three main kinds of word whose grammatical form depends on a neighbour’s

THE EXTENT OF GRAMMATICAL AGREEMENT IN ENGLISH

Agreement is one of those elementary areas of English grammar that, like commas and capital letters, many advanced learners still regularly make mistakes with. Part of the reason is probably that the concept of agreement actually covers quite a wide range of different structures. As a result, different aspects tend to be presented at different times, making it more difficult for learners to make helpful connections between them, and there are numerous places where error is likely.

Within this blog, agreement is the main topic of one other post (12. Singular and Plural Verb Choices), and is also touched on in 28. Pronoun Errors (#5) and 138. Grammar Command Test 1. However, these are not complete surveys of agreement in English. Here, I aim to provide such a survey in the hope that this will help at least some of those who still struggle with one or other of the different agreement types.

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DEFINITION AND TYPES OF AGREEMENT

Agreement in English is a grammatical indication that two or more neighbouring words are sharing part of their meaning with each other. A familiar example is “subject-verb” agreement, where a verb has either singular or plural form depending on which of these two meanings is present in a noun or pronoun that is its subject.

Thus, the present simple form of the verb RISE with the plural subject prices has to be plural rise, but with singular the price has to be singular rises. In this case, the form of the subject also varies according to which of the two meanings is being conveyed (something that grammarians call “concord”), but in other cases only one of the two words will change their form.

Overall, there appear to be three main combination types where agreement exists. Besides verbs and their subjects, we find certain adjective-like words agreeing with a noun that usually follows them but sometimes goes before, and pronouns agreeing with nouns or their equivalents. Each of these types has some features that can be obstacles to success in reading and/or writing.

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POTENTIAL PROBLEMS

1. Subject-Verb Agreement

It can be useful to appreciate, if you do not already, that the decision whether to make a subject and verb singular or plural is complicated by the fact that the same ending -s is often involved with both, but with opposite meanings: plural with subjects, singular with verbs. Confusion is obviously possible and may explain some errors. If you believe that you sometimes confuse the two, it might be useful to develop some mnemonic to help you, such as “SSSingular on verbs”.

Without mastery of subject-verb agreement in reading, there can be a failure to recognise which of various nouns in a sentence is a subject. This point is well illustrated by the following sentence from 28. Pronoun Errors:

(a) An alloy is a mixture of elements which has metallic properties.

Here, the subject of the verb has is actually which, a pronoun representing a noun just before it. The problem is that which has two nouns before it that it might represent: alloy and elements. Matching which with the right one is vital for the definition of an alloy: elements would suggest that all of the elements in an alloy need metallic properties, whereas a mixture would suggest only the overall mixture does, non-metallic elements within it thus being possible.

Using the rule of subject-verb agreement, however, we see from the singular verb has that which must represent the singular noun mixture, not plural elements. The message is thus that alloys can contain non-metallic substances provided only that the resultant mixture is metallic. This is the actual truth: the alloy steel, for example, contains non-metallic carbon alongside the metal iron.

Subject-verb agreement rules sometimes also help show whether or not a word in a text is a verb. For example, if we see the combination price increase, we will know from the absence of an ending on increase that it must be a noun, since a verb with price as its singular subject would have to be increases. If increase is a noun, price must be a noun describing it in an adjective-like way (see 38. Nouns Used like Adjectives) – and the verb of the sentence will be somewhere else. For more on grammar in reading, see 288. Grammatical Subtleties.

In writing, success with subject-verb agreement involves recognising which words in a planned sentence are a verb and its subject, deciding whether the subject has singular or plural meaning, making sure the subject has the right form for the intended meaning, and finally ensuring that the verb does too. The most difficult step seems to be identifying the subject. For advice on this, as well as on some of the other steps, see 12. Singular and Plural Verb Choices.

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2(a). Agreement between a Noun and Adjective-like Word Just before it

Verbs are not the only kind of word that sometimes need to reflect the meaning of an accompanying noun: a few words that typically go just before a noun also have this feature. Where both words can change their form, it is that of the noun that is decided first – again according to whether one or more than one of something is being represented – the form of the other word then being chosen to match it.

The main words whose form varies according to whether a following noun is singular or plural are this/these, that/those, another/other and much/many. We may also include a(n), which becomes plural by being absent (the so-called “zero article”). All of these words fall into the adjective-like class called “determiners” (see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”), but they do not all behave the same. Other and the zero article, for example, can accompany uncountable nouns as well as plural ones. Singular much cannot accompany singular countable nouns. For more about that, see 234. Adjective and Pronoun Uses of “that”.

In addition, there is sometimes a special problem with this/these: despite the different spellings, their pronunciations sound the same to speakers of some other languages. This can be a particular problem if such speakers are trying to learn English in a mostly spoken environment. Hearing no difference between /ɪ/ and /i:/ might easily suggest that this and these are a non-variable form usable before both singular and plural nouns, and hence that they have the same spelling (most likely this) in writing. An incorrect use of this appears in 214. Test your Command of Grammar 2. For more on grammar errors linked to pronunciation, see 144. Words that are Often Heard Wrongly.

The plural form other can also give problems, there being a temptation for some learners of English to add -s (e.g. *others people). One reason is undoubtedly the existence in many languages of plural adjective forms. However, English makes matters worse by possessing a pronoun (as opposed to adjective) use of other whose plural does need -s (see 133. Confusions of Similar Structures 1, #2).

In addition to the variable pre-noun words listed above, there are some invariable ones that the noun must agree with. All number words including zero but excepting one need any following noun to be plural (and hence countable), and decimal numbers do too, e.g. 0.5 litres (see 67. Numbers in Spoken English, #7). The fairly common error of using a singular noun after a number word is at least partly a result of the plurality being already clear from the number word’s meaning, though mother tongue influence can also be a factor (see 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #2).

Alongside number words, substitutes like all, both, no, numerous, several, some and (a) few also need a following countable noun to be plural (though all, no and some can have a singular noun too if it is uncountable, e.g. all information). Further care is needed with each and every, which cannot ever have a plural noun, despite their meaning similarity to all (see 169. “All”, “Each” and “Every”).

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2(b). Agreement between a Noun and an Adjective-like Word before Another Noun

This agreement combination only involves the possessives my, our, your, its, his, her, their and one’s. They always precede a noun, but not the one they agree with:

(b) Caesar overcame his enemies by force.

Here, his agrees with Caesar, not enemies: it is singular not plural (which would be their). There is actually another type of agreement here too: his tells us that Caesar was a man, not a woman – a female subject like Cleopatra would of course equate to her, and a non-living one like the state would need its. This “gender” agreement is only necessary when the noun being agreed with is singular and not the speaker or addressee. Elsewhere it is lost – there is no gender information in my, our, your, their or one’s.

The fact that possessive adjectives agree with a different noun than the one after them is for some English learners a very likely cause of error. Another is the possessive needed to agree with an earlier use of one meaning “people in general”. The correct form is always one’s, not his, her or their, e.g.:

(c) One should always back up one’s important computer files.

Note, though, that one might elsewhere mean “an individual within a particular group”, and then does need his, her or their instead of one’s (see 211. General Words for People).

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3. Agreement between a Noun and a Pronoun

Some pronouns, e.g. all, someone, enough and more, always have the same form. Many others, however, change their form according to a noun that they represent. The change may indicate “number” (singular / plural), “gender”, “case” (subject / object) or “person” (speaker / addressee / other person). Examples are:

Pronoun Variation within Different Categories

As these show, some pronouns (e.g. I) vary in multiple ways.

Note that one only becomes plural ones when it means “members of an indicated group” (see 63. Constraints on Using “the one[s]”) – there is no plural for the meaning “people in general” (see 211. General Words for People). On the other hand, the possessive one’s is usable only with this latter meaning – see sentence (c) above. Note also that the he-she and him-her gender distinctions are today often avoided (for the sake of equality) through the use of they-them in all cases. For more about -self/-selves, see 143. Subtleties of “-self” Words.

Number is probably the most common cause of pronoun agreement errors (see 28. Pronoun Errors, #5), followed by gender. The problem with this/these is again common. A very frequent non-agreement error with its above is confusing it with it’s. (see 138. Test your Command of Grammar 1, #5).

200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses

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Some relative clause uses tend not to be described in lower-level grammars

THE POTENTIAL OF RELATIVE CLAUSES

The word “special” in the above title indicates that the well-known basics of relative clauses are outside the focus of this post. I am interested not so much in how to use relative clauses as when. In investigating this topic, I have unearthed some quite unexpected and exotic uses that I hope readers will agree are worth highlighting.

In fact, this approach is not new within these pages. Similar posts, also with the word “special” in their title, are 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences,  190. Special Uses of “it” and 235. Special Uses of “the”. Two other posts that feature a special relative pronoun use are 87. “Same As” versus “Same That” and 311. Exotic Grammar Structures 9, #2.

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PRELIMINARY ESSENTIALS

To facilitate the discussion of special uses, a few essentials of relative clauses are worth highlighting. The word “clause” refers to a verb in a sentence along with any typical verb accompaniments that it might have, especially its “subject”. Some analysts would say that single-verb sentences are also clauses, but others would recognise clauses only when there are at least two verbs in separate parts of a sentence.

For a clause to be part of a longer sentence, there needs to be what I have elsewhere called a “joining device” – a special indicator that more than one verb is present – such as a conjunction, -ing ending or semi-colon (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). The usual kind of joining device in relative clauses is a “relative pronoun”: a special kind of word with a pronoun function as well as a “joining” one. The main ones are who, whom, which and that. That is not to be confused with the same spelling used as a conjunction (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”).

There is also whose – often called a pronoun but actually an adjective. The reason why it is so easily grouped with true relative pronouns is not just its spelling resemblance: the clauses it introduces act in the same way as those with a relative pronoun, namely as an adjective-like addition to the meaning of an earlier noun. Consider this adaptation of a sentence from 28. Pronoun Errors:

(a) An alloy is a mixture that has metallic properties.

The underlined relative clause is like an adjective describing the preceding noun mixture – and it could, because it involves the verb has, easily be paraphrased with whose (+ noun): …whose properties are metallic.

These observations are the reason why I prefer to talk here about relative “clauses” rather than “pronouns”: it is a more inclusive concept covering not just pronouns with a “relative” function but also other kinds of word that act similarly.

There are, indeed, a number of other such words. Consider when in clauses like when the illness has gone. If the preceding word indicates asking, explaining or knowing, such as investigate or the question, then when is introducing a noun-like indirect question (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing); but if the preceding word is a noun without any of these meanings, for example moment, then when is introducing an adjectival relative clause. Why and where have a similar duality (see 285. Complexities of Question Words, #3).

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SPECIAL USES

1. Helping to Show Emphasis

Many readers will know that relative clauses can follow a starting it is + noun to highlight the noun as the most important information in a sentence:

(b) It is mainly DEMAND that determines prices.

For details of this use, see 190. Special Uses of “it”, #3.

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2. Relating to an Entire Statement

To say that relative clauses always add to the meaning of a preceding noun is slightly inaccurate because they can also describe a whole statement instead (causing occasional problems for computers checking grammar – see 69. How Computers Get Grammar Wrong 2):

(c) Octavian defeated his enemies in battle, which enabled him to become Roman Emperor.

Which here refers to what Octavian did, not the battle.

In this usage, which is always needed instead of who or that, it always follows a comma, and it has a singular verb after it. Who is ruled out because statements are never human; that is not possible because the relative clause is “non-defining” – a factor that also explains the need for the comma. A possible addition before which is something, or (better) a noun describing the event in question, e.g. an achievement in (c) (see 191. Exotic Grammar Structures 3, #5).

A common advantage of this sort of which is that it allows a new statement to be placed in a sentence without using and – especially valuable in writing types where and would otherwise be very frequent, such as instructions, process descriptions and histories. Using which is an alternative to putting the verb after it into the -ing participle form: enabling above (see 101. Add-on Participles, example #g).

It was once possible to have a full stop instead of a comma before this kind of which, but today after a full stop English prefers this (see the end of 28. Pronoun Errors). 

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3. As an Indirect Statement

A relative clause can become an indirect statement like this:

(d) Homer, who tradition says wrote The Iliad, probably did not exist.

As with most indirect statements, the one underlined here accompanies a verb of saying or thinking (says – see 150. Verb Choices with Indirect Speech), whose subject names the originator of the statement (tradition). What is unusual is that the indirect statement starts with a relative pronoun (in this case who), the reason being that the main part of the sentence (Homer…probably did not exist) is the writer’s own direct assertion.

The structure can give problems to speakers of other languages. Firstly, its three verbs have only one joining device (who) instead of the expected two. Who links wrote and did not exist; but nothing links them to says. This strange situation is normal in sentences like (d). There is no possibility of adding a word like that (*says that…). Doing so is a fairly common error.

Secondly, it can be tempting to believe whom may replace who, on the grounds that it is the object of the speech verb (says above). Again, English follows a different logic, relating who instead to the other verb (wrote above). In some sentences it might be the object of this other verb, so that whom would be correct as well, but in (d) it is the subject of wrote, ruling out the possibility of whom. To avoid error, there may be benefit in viewing the speech verb and its subject (tradition says) as a kind of separate statement (like those in 183. Statements between Commas), despite the absence of surrounding commas.

Note, though, that who does become the object of the speech verb, enabling whom to replace it, if there is no verb in the indirect statement. This would be the case, for example, if (d) ended …whom tradition links with The Odyssey….

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4. Inside the Word “What”

What is another word that can make relative clauses, but it is unusual in that its meaning includes not just that of a relative pronoun but also that of the noun that would normally go before one. It means something like “the thing which”:

(e) What causes the most stress must be avoided.

(f) What causes the most stress is noise.

Here, there are two slightly different uses of what. In (e) the noun equating to the  “thing” meaning inside what is not mentioned – it is unimportant, unknown or expected to be already familiar, perhaps through having been mentioned earlier. In (f), by contrast, the noun referred to by what (noise) is mentioned at the end after the verb BE (is…). This highlights it as the main information in the sentence. Sometimes, uncertainty can arise about which of these alternative uses what has (see 257. Structures with a Double Meaning 4, #3).

A fairly common error with what is adding all before it: all has to combine with that instead (see 231. Confusions of Similar Structures 3, #1).

Sometimes sentences like (e) and (f) have to be made with a noun + relative clause instead of what. For example, what cannot refer to people. To refer to a single human being, it is normal to say the person who/that (not just who); to highlight a human group, say those who/that or the -s who/that (see 211. General Words for People). Other kinds of idea that what cannot express include times, reasons and quantities (see 145. Highlighting with “What” Sentences).

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5. Replacing “so” + Adjective

One use of so with an adjective is next to a that statement of result:

(g) People were SO WEALTHY that they could own a car.

Various alternatives are possible here. Instead of so + ADJECTIVE, one could use such + NOUN: had such wealth… (see 32. Expressing Consequences). One could also place so and its adjective at the start, reversing the order of the subject and verb (So wealthy were people…). Or one could put the result first without that (see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1).

A very rare alternative is the + NOUN + RELATIVE CLAUSE instead of so + ADJECTIVE:

(h) The (level of) wealth (that) they had, people could own a car.

(i) Language learning is slow, the (amount of) vocabulary which is needed. (= … so much vocabulary is needed)

As these show, the nouns replacing so (wealth, vocabulary) are the same as or like the words that would normally follow it, and they are directly followed by a relative pronoun (that, which) that can sometimes be left unmentioned but still understood. In addition, the idea of quantity implied by so can be made explicit with a quantity noun like level or amount. Other examples of quantity nouns are distance, length, number and quantity (see after sentence [a] in 163. Ways of Naming Properties). However such nouns are not always possible:

(j) The team won everything, the star players (that) they had (= …such star players they had).

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6. In Definitions

Definitions have various possible formats (see 286. Repeating in Different Words, #1), but a classic one includes a relative clause:

(k) An ammeter is an instrument that measures electric current.

Here, the relative that links with a preceding noun (instrument) that is naming the wider category of the defined idea (ammeter). Within this category, the words after that describe only the defined idea – not all instruments – a message clear from the absent comma before that (see 34. Relative Pronouns & Commas).

Sentences like (k) are not automatically definitions: the starting noun must represent the only member of the category describable by the that part. Consider this:

(l) Gold is a metal that does not tarnish.

No definition exists here because the underlined words describe some other metals besides gold.

Relative clauses without a preceding comma are sometimes called “defining”, but in definitions they “define” only the general class name, not the main definition subject.

190. Special Uses of “it”

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“It” is necessary in some surprising places in English

THE NEED TO CONSIDER “IT”

In elementary courses, the pronoun it is often linked with two main uses: expressing the same meaning as a previously-mentioned or obvious noun (not always such a simple matter – see 28. Pronoun Errors), and introducing specific information like weather conditions (it’s raining), times (it was midday), distances (it is 25 km to Rome) and situations (it was dark).

Elsewhere within this blog, some other uses are given consideration (alongside a surprising place where it cannot be used: see 104. Naming Data Sources with “As”). However, there is no extensive and systematic survey. Although such surveys do exist in mainstream grammar descriptions, I wish to present my own one here. This is partly because I have my own classification, and partly because I wish to give particular attention, as ever, to academic and professional contexts.

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MORE ADVANCED “IT” USES

1. Self-Identification

If you are talking to someone who cannot see you, for example on the phone, it is usually necessary after an introductory greeting to identify yourself. Sometimes you should begin it is…, sometimes this is…. The former is normal if you know the addressee and contact them frequently; the latter otherwise. To identify yourself to someone who can see you, say I am.

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2. Statement Postponing

This particular use of it is considered in some depth in these pages in 103. Representing a Later Statement with “It…”. What it refers to is not a previous or obvious noun, but a subsequently-mentioned verb-based statement:

(a) It is argued that low taxes maximise government income.

Here, the statement that it represents (underlined) has been made noun-like by a preceding that, but elsewhere it may instead have -ing or to or a question word added to its verb (maximise above). The correspondence of it to the statement can be seen from the fact that the sentence means the same if the statement is moved to the start of the sentence in place of it. The usual reason for preferring to start with it instead of the statement is the English preference for placing long phrases at the end of a sentence. For details, see the relevant post.

In (a), there is a passive verb after it (is argued), useful when the subject of the verb’s active equivalent needs to be unmentioned. Perhaps more common is a complement-needing verb like BE, SEEM or REMAIN, with a following adjective or noun, e.g. It is a joy to… (see 318. “It is” + Noun and Another Verb).

A more advanced type of statement-postponing it is in the object position after another verb:

(b) Some writers believe (that) it is possible to travel back in time.

Here, the it sentence is made into the object of believe by means of a visible or understood that – the typical way of placing any statement in the object position (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”, second section).

Sometimes, however, there is an alternative. If the verb after it is a form of BE, like is above, there may be an option of dropping (that) and putting BE into a visible or understood infinitive form to be instead: believe it (to be) possible… above. It then becomes the object of the verb before it, and if to be is not expicitly included, the next word (possible…) would be an “object complement” – describing the object without being linked to it by a visible verb in between (see 220. Features of Complements, #1).

The possibility of using it (to be)… instead of (that) it is… usually arises when the main verb, of which the it statement is the object, expresses an opinion or personal perception like believe above. Other common ones are CONSIDER, DECLARE, DEEM, FIND, HOLD, IMAGINE, JUDGE, SEE, SUPPOSE, TAKE and THINK (see 92. Verbs with an Object + “as”). The underlined ones cannot omit to be after it. For an example using FIND, see 312. Grammar Command Test 3, #d.

Similar to these verbs are DESCRIBE, REGARD, THINK OF and VIEW, which need as after it instead of to be (regards it as necessary to…), and MAKE (= “cause to be”) which allows neither to be nor as:

(c) A shortage of fertilizer made it necessary to rotate crops.

Here, MAKE IT has a directly-following adjective (necessary); elsewhere, it may have a noun (see 141. Ways of Using MAKE, “Other Structures with MAKE”, #1). 

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3. Emphasising

This is a well-known and widely-described use of it, so is only briefly summarised here. An example is:

(d) It is mainly demand that determines prices.

Again, it represents something following (demand), but not a statement and not located at the end. Here it is a noun; elsewhere it might be an adverb or adverb-like preposition phrase:

(e) It was willingly that the country went to war.

The word(s) represented by it are what such sentences emphasise. They are separated from it by is or similar, and followed by that (or who after a person, when after a time, where after a place – see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses). The emphasis is the kind where the relevant wording is being very clearly marked as the main information in the sentence – leaving no doubt that it is what the sentence is “about” (see 125. Stress and Emphasis).

Writers choose to emphasise with it in this way when they fear that a standard sentence might fail to indicate which information is the most important. For example, writing (d) as Demand determines prices risks prices being understood as the main point rather than demand, since ordinary sentences usually place the key information at the end (see 156. Mentioning what the Reader Knows Already).

Making the verb passive might also overcome this problem, since it is a way of placing information at the end of a sentence, but some verbs cannot be passive (see 113. Verbs that Cannot be Passive), and sometimes the end is undesirable for other reasons. Moreover, the end of the sentence is not a guaranteed means of ensuring the right interpretation. Beginning with It is…, on the other hand, can overcome all of these problems. It is similar to, but not the same as, beginning with emphasis-showing what (see 145. Highlighting with “What” Sentences).

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4. Anticipating an Object

It was indicated above that some English verbs can have as their object a statement starting with that. Most of these verbs can go directly before that:

(f) Global warming means that energy sources are changing.

A few verbs, however, need it in between. Mostly expressing liking/disliking or arranging, they include ABHOR, DETEST, HATE, LOATH, APPRECIATE, ENJOY, (DIS)LIKE, LOVE, ARRANGE, FIX, SEE TO and TAKE (= conclude: see 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE, #18) – but not VALUE and WELCOME, which need the fact instead of it. An example is:

(g) Some children hate it that they have to go to school.

Of course, these verbs do not always have a that statement as their object. With ordinary noun objects, it cannot be added. However, -ing verb objects (see 70. Gerunds) mostly allow a choice, e.g. hate (it) having to….

Sometimes it after these verbs is followed not by a noun-like that phrase, but by an adverb-like phrase beginning if or when. Even VALUE and WELCOME then need it. The impact on the meaning is to make it less factual. For example, replacing that in (g) with if would suggest that going to school was not a normal experience for the subject some children.

The verb APPRECIATE is especially notable. Before it that it expresses appreciation for something already done, but before it if it makes a request more polite (see 166. Appropriacy in Professional English). The requesting use needs would, followed normally by could with the other verb:

(h) We would appreciate it if payment could be made immediately.

With three other verbs – LEAVE, OWE and TAKE – it anticipates a to-verb object separated by a preposition phrase:

(i) People LEAVE IT to the government TO FIND volunteers.

This means the government have to find volunteers. Replacing leave with owe would say people have a duty to do the finding. Take it needs upon themselves after it, making the sentence mean people choose to do the finding.

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5. After “worth”

Worth is a preposition with some adjective-like uses (see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #1). One is in the “complement” position, describing an earlier noun separated from it by BE or similar:

(k) A visit to the Taj Mahal is worth it.

The word it is necessary after worth to meet the grammatical requirements of worth’s prepositional status. It is a “dummy” it, like that in (4) above. Worth it could also follow it is…, any subsequent verb having to, not the usual -ing (see 165. Confusions of Similar Structures 2, #2).

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6. Explaining a Complaint

If there are two reasons for a complaint, one more obvious than the other, the more obvious one can be introduced with It is not just…, the other one following in a new sentence (see 228. Exotic Grammar Structures 5, #2).

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7. After “as” + Citation Verb

Citation verbs facilitate reporting from an academic source (see 76. Tenses of Citation Verbs). One way in which many can be linked to the reported information is within a parenthesis starting with as (see 183. Statements between Commas), often at the start of a sentence:

(l) As Jones (2020, p. 43) notes, dangerous drugs are “easier to obtain than sweets”.

In this example, the citation verb notes ends the parenthesis. However, some citation verbs need a following it before the end, e.g. expresses it above. Other verbs with this need include CHARACTERISE, DEFINE, DEPICT, EVALUATE, PORTRAY, PRESENT, PHRASE, PUT, REPRESENT, SEE (= interpret) and SUMMARISE.

A pointer to a verb after as needing it is the verb’s inability to be used with that… . All of the verbs in the list have it, and NOTE in (l) does not, allowing Jones … notes that… (when SEE has that…, it means “recognise” rather than “interpret: see 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #4). A problem, though, is that there are plenty of verbs which allow neither that nor as…it, such as CRITICISE (see 279. Grammatical Differences between Citation Verbs, #5).

PUT and PHRASE in this list actually need it wherever they are used with the same meaning (see 242. Words with Unexpected Grammar 3, #c). Without a preceding as, they and their it object usually precede a manner adverb like simply, plus by saying or a colon, e.g. Jones (…) puts it simply by saying… . Other possible adverbs include bluntly, clearly, concisely, delicately, mildly and nicely.

There is also a non-reporting parenthetical use of PUT IT and PHRASE IT, describing one’s own statement. This requires the verbs to be in the to (infinitive) form with one of the above adverbs, e.g. to put it simply.

189. Expressing Sufficiency

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Words expressing sufficiency are not numerous, but their grammar can cause problems

VARIETY AND FORMS OF SUFFICIENCY WORDS

Sufficiency is usually expressed in English by enough or, more formally, a word containing the letters SUFFIC-. Both of these alternatives can represent different word classes (i.e. be different “parts of speech”). The possibilities are as follows:

It may seem strange that the same spelling can represent so many different word classes, but this is quite common in English – for other examples, see 3. Multi-Use Words and 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”. In this post I wish to clarify how the above and some other sufficiency words are used, and to describe some grammatical structures that are particularly associated with them.

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THE CONCEPT OF SUFFICIENCY

A sufficient quantity is one that meets a desired level. For example, if food is desired to a level that overcomes hunger, a sufficient quantity is the amount that achieves this – either exactly or with some to spare. The idea of sufficiency can be linked not just with pleasant ideas like food but also unpleasant ones like noise or suffering. In such cases, making the link usually implies a desire for the supply to stop. For example, enough noise tends to imply “I do not want any more noise”.

The idea of sufficiency is not the same as that of abundance – despite my computer’s thesaurus listing abundant, ample and plenty as synonyms of sufficient. These words refer to a quantity that most people would consider well above average. In most cases, such a quantity will ensure sufficiency (often being referred to as more than enough), but this is not inevitable: an abundant quantity can still fail to meet a sufficiency level that is very high. Thus we can say that an abundant quantity is not necessarily sufficient just as a sufficient one is not necessarily abundant.

This difference between sufficiency and abundance is useful for deciding whether or not particular statements are expressing sufficiency. Compare the following:

(a) People were wealthy enough to own a car.

(b) People were so wealthy that they could own a car.

The presence of enough in (a) certainly makes it a statement of sufficiency. But is so in (b) a true paraphrase? I would argue not. Sentence (a) tells us nothing about the overall wealth of people – they might indeed be quite poor. Sentence (b), however, does link people with wealth – so means “very”. A suitable paraphrase might be were very wealthy and consequently could….

Alongside the sufficiency statement in (a), there is also the naming of a consequence (…to own a car). Consequence-naming is common but not compulsory in sufficiency statements. It is typically done by adding a to verb on to the end of the sentence (see the last part of 32. Expressing Consequences).

Negative sufficiency statements are most easily made by placing not before enough or in- before sufficient(ly). Statements with too, e.g. …too poor to own… in (a), are similar (see 13. Hidden Negatives), but like so statements they are probably not exact sufficiency equivalents: too poor appears to indicate more poverty than not wealthy enough.

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GRAMMATICAL VARIATION OF SUFFICIENCY EXPRESSIONS

Sufficiency expressions are of various grammatical types.

1. Noun/Pronoun Uses

When enough acts like a noun, it is considered to be not a noun but a pronoun. It has grammatical features of pronouns (e.g. inability to be used after a or the), and like most pronouns it refers to different (sufficient) things in different situations (see 28. Pronoun Errors). In the following example, enough is the subject of its sentence and represents a sufficient quantity of something like “work” or “action”:

(c) Not enough is being done to alleviate world poverty.

The noun sufficiency does not seem to be very usable instead of the pronoun enough. It certainly could not replace enough in (c). The place where it seems most able to do so is after there – e.g. there is a sufficiency (of)… – though this is rather wordy. The main use of sufficiency seems to be not for asserting a sufficiency but as a means of talking about an already-established one, like this:

(d) The sufficiency of the government’s measures was clear.

A more usable alternative to the pronoun enough is all (that) combined with NEED or similar (BE NECESSARY, HAVE TO etc.) + is. A famous example is the Beatles song title All You Need is Love (= love is enough). A more everyday example might be All (that) we have to do is wait.

The last word in such statements must correspond to all; if it does not, all will mean “everything” instead of “the sufficient thing” (see 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #6). Linking all (that) with a verb that is not like NEED will also change the meaning of all (to “the only thing”). Care is needed in using all (that) not to say *all what instead (see 231. Confusions of Similar Structures 3, #1).

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2. Adjective Uses

Enough acts like an adjective when it gives information about a nearby noun, like this:

(e) Deserts exist where there is not enough rainfall.

In this case, enough directly precedes its noun. It can also follow it, either in the normal way with a link verb in between (…where rainfall is not enough) or, unusually, without one (demand enough). The adjective-like status of enough is confirmed by the fact that, in the two main positions, the adjective sufficient is a perfectly acceptable, if slightly more formal, alternative. The adjectives adequate and satisfactory are also synonyms, though the latter rather negatively suggests more would be better (see 284. Words with a Surprising Meaning, #5).

With the adjective-like use, a following to verb in the active voice may have either active or passive meaning. In (e), the former would be understood with the ending …where rainfall is not enough to water the land, the latter with …not enough to record (see 83. Adjectives before a “to” Verb).

Strictly speaking, however, it is not quite accurate to call enough an adjective in the above examples. Instead, it falls into the category of “determiners” – adjective-like words that replace rather than accompany a(n) or the before a noun (see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”). Thus, although it is possible to say the sufficient effort of…, one cannot replace sufficient with enough.

Another limitation of adjective-like enough is that it is not usable with all noun types (a characteristic shared by many other determiners – see, for example, 169. “All”, “Each” and “Every”). It can accompany uncountable nouns (e.g. enough evidence) and plural countable nouns (e.g. enough people), but not singular countable ones (*enough person). Sufficient is the same.

To overcome the inability of adjective-like enough to accompany the or a(n) directly before a noun, one must use the pronoun form instead. This means adding of between enough and the or a(n). For example, one has to say enough of the money to refer to particular money rather than money in general (the meaning in enough money).

To use a(n) after enough of, the noun must, as usual, be countable, e.g. enough of a disaster. In such cases, the sufficiency is of quality rather than quantity: not the number of (disasters) but the size or importance of (a single one).

When using of after enough, care is needed to follow it with a(n) or the (or similar, e.g. this): placing a noun directly after of, e.g. *enough of money, is a common error (see 133. Confusions of Similar Structures 1, #1). For more on the use of of after quantity words, see 160. Uses of “of”, #5.

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3. Adverb Uses

Enough and sufficiently (and also adequately) are adverbs when they add information about a word that is not noun-like. The partner word may be a verb, adjective or other adverb (see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs, #2). In the following sentence, it is a verb:

(f) Children thrive if they play enough (play sufficiently/adequately).

When enough partners a verb, it must usually follow it. Care is needed to distinguish the adverb use in this position from the pronoun one. In the pronoun use, enough is the object of the verb. It is recognisable as such if there is no other possible object and the verb is the kind that normally needs one (see 8. Object-Dropping Errors). In (f), enough would be a pronoun if the verb was do instead of play.

When enough partners an adjective or adverb, it must come after – cf. wealthy enough in (a) above. This makes enough different from other “degree” adverbs like fairly, quite, rather, so, too and very (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much). Sufficiently can always replace enough, but it must go first (sufficiently wealthy).

One other relevant adverb is only. In suitable contexts before a noun it means “not enough”, as for example in only one week describing schooling received in a year (see 251. The Grammar of “Only”).

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4. Verb Uses

The verb SUFFICE is mostly used without a directly-following noun (“object” or “complement”) so that it is “intransitive” and hence not usual in the passive voice (see 113. Verbs that cannot be Passive). As the table above indicates, it normally corresponds to BE ENOUGH, e.g.:

(g) The rainfall suffices (= is enough) to meet the needs of the population.

The fact that SUFFICE is a single word makes it useful for paraphrasing (see 270. Paraphrasing Adjectives with Words of Other Kinds). It easily combines with the kind of to verb that is common after enough (to meet above), and also with for + NOUN (…suffices for everyone).

A fixed phrase containing SUFFICE is suffice (it) to say (that…). Used either at the start of a sentence or as a parenthetical statement, it normally signals indirect speech. It means that negative information is being withheld, and as such illustrates the “characterising” use of indirect speech (see the end of 127. When to Use Indirect Speech). The reason why suffice lacks -s in this phrase despite the singular subject (it) is that it is in the rare unchanging form known as the “subjunctive” (see 118. Problems with Conditional “if”, #6).

A less formal synonym of SUFFICE is DO, used without an object. It typically needs to accompany a “modal” verb like will, should, can, may, might or could: (see 213. Special Uses of “Do” 2, #1). To replace suffices in (g), for example, we could say will do. The verb MEET can express sufficiency too, but only with a suitable object, e.g. meet a/the need and meet expectations. Informally, one can also say come up to expectation (uncountable without -s).

169. “All”, “Each” and “Every”

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These three words of similar meaning differ in numerous ways in their grammar and meaning.

THE DIFFICULTY OF DISTINGUISHING THESE WORDS

All, each and every can give trouble because there are subtle differences between them of both grammar and meaning (rather like the differences shown by 98. “Very”, “Much” and “Very Much”). Many of these differences are given attention in English Language coursebooks, but a detailed comparison of the three words together seems rare.

It is this kind of comparison that I am attempting in the present post. Consideration is given first to usage with a following noun and then to usage without. A number of specialised uses are also presented. One other Guinlist post dealing with the same kind of meaning is 308. Complexities of “Whole”.

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USAGE WITH A FOLLOWING NOUN

The principal ways in which the three words can combine with a following noun may be illustrated as follows:

(a) All sentences need a subject.

(b) All (of) the sentences need a subject.

(c) Each sentence needs a subject.

(d) Each (one) of the sentences needs a subject.

(e) Every sentence needs a subject.

(f) Every one of the sentences needs a subject.

The following differences are illustrated by these examples:

1. The three words equally express the meaning of “100%”. However, each highlights the individuals that make it up rather than the whole group.

2. Each and every accompany only countable nouns. All is also shown above with a countable noun, but elsewhere its noun might be uncountable (e.g. all suffering).

3. Each and every require any noun placed directly after them to be singular, but all sometimes has a singular one (all suffering, all day, all the world), and sometimes a plural one (all people).

4. To place each/every before a noun with the, you must add of in between and make the noun plural (see 160. Uses of “of”, #5). However, all allows both all the and all of the, and normal singular/plural usage.

5. Before of the, every must have one, all cannot have it, and each allows a choice. The reason for the need with every is that it is always an adjective (needing a noun-like word to describe). Each, on the other hand, allows a choice because it can be either an adjective (needing a noun-like partner) or a pronoun (needing to be alone). Including one after each is emphatic, giving more prominence to the individuality of the group members. For more on flexible pronouns like each, see 28. Pronoun Errors.

6. A noun without the (or similar) after all/each/every must also be without of (see 133. Confusions of Similar Structures 1, #1). It has to be singular after each and every (each/every sentence), but may be singular or plural after all depending on its type (all suffering, all sentences). For information about when to drop the, see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”.

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Additional points, not illustrated by the examples above, are:

7. Each is less common than the other two words, but is the only possibility when the partner noun belongs to a group of only two members, as in this example:

(g) Each side of the brain has specialized functions.

If you wished to say sides here instead of side, you would have to replace each with both, not all. It is quite a common error to use all when both is required.

8. The three words are not commonly used before the words person, people and thing(s), with or without the. Instead, the pronouns everyone and everything are usually preferred (e.g. Everything perishes rather than *Each/Every thing perishes or *All things perish).

9. The three words easily combine with a pronoun by means of of (all of us, each of them, every one of you). All and each can also follow the pronoun without of (e.g. we all, them each).

10. When describing a noun that is a subject of BE or a multi-word verb, any of the expressions can precede it, but each and all can alternatively follow it, either with the first word of the verb moved before them (e.g. The sentences can each/all have…) or without it (e.g. The sentences each/all can have…). Each and all are adjective-like determiners when used without of and pronouns with it.

11. After of an alternative to the is a similarly definite word like the “demonstrative” adjectives” this/that and “possessive” adjectives its, their etc. (each of their sentences…). The entire combination of the (etc.) + plural noun can be replaced by plural pronouns like them.

12. Every and all can be used after almost and practically, but each cannot (Practically all sentences/every sentence …).

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USAGE WITHOUT A FOLLOWING NOUN

Points 1, 7 and 11 above also apply when there is no following noun. In addition, there is an equivalent to points 2/3: each and every imply singular countable nouns, while all can imply plural and uncountable nouns too. Consider this:

(h) The figure contains six triangles. Each is equilateral.

The underlined verb is singular because each always stands for a singular countable noun (here triangle). On the other hand, if all replaced each, the verb would need to be plural (are) because all would represent the plural triangles.

To use every in (h) instead of each, it would be necessary to add one. This is again due to the exclusively adjective nature of every. If the reference is to people, one must be joined onto every to make a single word:

(i) The building can accommodate six residents. Everyone has their own bathroom.

For the use of every one, plus other pairs that make a similar contrast, see 26. One Word or Two?

A special use of each by itself occurs in the object position after a verb: alongside the word other, it indicates that two people or things are each doing the same thing to the other, as in this example:

(j) Large apes like to groom each other.

For more on such sentences, see 143. Subtleties of “-self” Words.

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SPECIALISED USES

Sentence (g) above illustrates a situation where only only one of the three words (each) is possible. There are a number of other meanings that similarly restrict choice.

1. Before “that…”

All can go directly before that… (= “which”), sometimes to mean everything (…described all that they saw), sometimes the only thing (All that I know is…). Care is needed not to say *all what instead (see 231. Confusions of Similar Structures 3, #1).

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2. With Time Nouns

Singular time nouns like minute, day and year can combine directly with each and every to make two different kinds of phrase: noun-like and adverb-like. The first kind act in sentences in typical noun positions like “subject” and “object”:

(k) Every/Each second counts.

(l) Take each/every day as it comes.

The adverb-like uses are unusual in lacking a starting preposition (similarly to time phrases with last… and next…). They are recognizable as adverbs because they occupy typical adverb positions and express the typical adverb meaning of frequency (see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs, #1):

(m) Exams are held each/every year.

Note that every can also make the one-word adjective everyday (see 26. One Word or Two?).

All too can go directly before a singular time noun, but only to make adverb phrases (saying how long):

(n) The consequences were visible all day.

A single long day is being referred to here, rather than the repeated days that each or every would signify (see 258. Saying How Long Something Lasts, #2).

To make all and a singular time noun usable in noun positions, you sometimes have to add of a(n) or of the, and sometimes just of. The former are needed before time nouns that normally follow a(n) or the, such as day, night or week:

(o) Preparation can occupy all of a day.

Of alone is necessary with time nouns in a noun position if they are the kind that are not generally used with the or a(n), such as today, Tuesday, July and 2019 (e.g. all of today).

All of and all of the can make not just noun expressions like all of today in (o), but also adverb ones like all day in (n). This means adding the or a(n) is always right, but dropping them can be wrong.

The use of all with a plural time noun, with or without of, is different from that with singular time nouns, as it tends to be just noun-like:

(p) All years are the same.

Finally, a notable contrast is between each/every time and all (of) the time. Time in the former is countable and means “occasion” (see 236. Tricky Word Contrasts 9, #3), while in the latter is uncountable and means “period”. For more on this kind of meaning difference, see 43. Substance Locations.

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3. With Numbers

All, each and every can go with a number + plural noun, e.g. …three spaces, but different meanings result. All indicates that the number is a total – not part of a larger group – and that no exceptions exist within this total, e.g.:

(q) All three spaces contained a car.

This means a total of three spaces existed, and none was empty.

Every and each, on the other hand, indicate that the mentioned number is repeated at regular intervals. Replacing all in (q), for example, they would show that there were numerous groups of three spaces, and all of these groups had one of their spaces occupied by a car.

In (q), the usage is noun-like. Adverb usage is also possible, especially with time nouns. All/Each/Every three years, for example, could indicate frequency.

 

PRACTICE EXERCISE: “All”, “Each” AND “Every”

Readers wishing to strengthen understanding and retention of the above points are invited to try the following exercise. You have to decide which one(s) of the three words are possible in each space (answers below).

1. .….. year brings different weather.

2. ….. tyre on a motor vehicle must be at the correct pressure. ….. need to be checked before a long drive.

3. Practically ….. human being responds positively to kindness.

4. The conference will run from Wednesday to Friday. ….. three days will begin with coffee.

5. Parents will show interest in ….. thing that their child learns.

6. There were numerous balls of different colours. Participants were asked to identify ….. of the green ones.

7. The USA and Canada are …. traversed by the Rocky Mountains.

8. In 2016, the weather was unusual ….. year.

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Answers

1. Each/every (+ singular year);  2. Each/every (+ singular tyre); all (+ plural need).  3. every (cf. practically + singular being);  4. all (only one group of 3);  5. each (not every because that would make one word, not two);  6. all/each (not every because one is absent).  7. each (not all because only two countries are involved);  8. all (only one year was involved).