1. Simple Example-Giving

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English has numerous words for naming one or some members of a general class without further details

DEFINITION OF SIMPLE EXAMPLE-GIVING

Example-giving has four main features. Firstly, it names one or more members of a previously-mentioned general class. For instance, cats or cats and dogs given as examples might be found after the general class name animals.

Secondly, example-giving indicates that fewer than all of the general class members are being mentioned. Without such indication, the reader will think multiple class members are all the possibilities (see 54. Sentence Lists 1: Incidental), and mention of just one equates to the class (see 117. Restating Generalizations More Specifically). Writers might selectively mention class members because there are too many to list completely. Sometimes they might indicate unmentioned members because they do not know if any exist and they want to avoid wrongly suggesting that none do (see 96. Making Statements More Uncertain 2).

Thirdly, class members named as examples are not chosen because they are special in any way; their choice is random. Thus, any statement beginning with in particular or above all or the most… is unlikely to be example-giving. For more about statements like these, see 54. Sentence Lists 1: Incidental.

Fourthly, the purpose of naming class members is to clarify or verify the class name and/or statement about it. One can selectively name class members for other purposes, for example as an introduction to their longer discussion (see 162. Writing about Classifications), but then they are not examples. One can also clarify or verify with a complete list of class members – again not exemplification.

Some example-giving relates just to a class name, while some relates to more. The first kind is what I mean by “simple” example-giving. An example is:

(a) Air pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide, cause many problems.

Here, sulphur dioxide is simply named as one of the members of the class of air pollutants, with nothing more said about it (cause many problems is information about air pollutants in general, not just sulphur dioxide).

This post is about language choices in simple example-giving. For language choices in the other kind of example-giving, see 33. Complex Example-Giving. Also relevant is 53. “As”, “Like” and “Such As”, which looks more closely at three of the example-giving expressions presented here.

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THE CHALLENGE OF SIMPLE-EXAMPLE GIVING

The two basic requirements for simple example-giving – the class name and the actual example(s) – can be placed either together in the same sentence or separately in multiple sentences. In this respect, simple example-giving resembles other two-element messages considered within these pages, such as expressing a consequence, indicating a difference, classifying and naming exceptions. The two example-giving possibilities may be illustrated like this:

(b) (ONE SENTENCE) Pollution causes many problems, for example illness.

(c) (TWO SENTENCES) Pollution causes many problems. One is illness.

Deciding whether or not to place the example(s) in the same sentence as the class name is the main linguistic judgement to make in simple example-giving. There is also a choice to be made of suitable example-showing language.

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LANGUAGE FOR SHOWING SIMPLE EXAMPLES

Various expressions can indicate simple example-giving. Some need the example(s) to be in the same sentence as the general class name, some need a new sentence, while some allow a choice.

1. Example-Showing in the Same Sentence as the Class

The main words of this type are for example, for instance, e.g., including, such as, like, as, include, illustrated by, etc. and say. Two of these, e.g. and etc., are Latin abbreviations (see 130. Formal Abbreviations).

For example, for instance, e.g. and including normally combine with their example(s) without intervening punctuation (see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #4). Punctuation only only goes before them and after the example(s). This use is different from that of for example and for instance in complex example-giving, which need punctuation directly before and after them (see 33. Complex Example-Giving).

For example and for instance can also follow a simple example (with punctuation both before and after them).

As, like and such as only sometimes have a preceding comma (see 53. “As”, “Like” and “Such as”). As needs a following preposition (typically in) before its example(s), or conjunction (usually when). Like and such as need a directly-preceding noun: a preceding verb like are is a quite common error. They allow a following verb, but it must have -ing (see 312. Grammar Command Test 3, #c). With multiple class members comprising all the possibilities, they must be replaced by the before the class name (see 309. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 5, #1).

Etc. normally follows example-naming after a colon or BE:

(d) There are various Romance languages: French, Spanish, Portuguese etc.

(e) (The) Romance languages are French, Spanish, Portuguese etc.

Colons must follow a sentence-like statement, as in (d) – an impossibility with BE forms like are in (e). The need for a colon or BE before examples with etc. resembles that before complete lists (see 55. Sentence Lists 2). However, example-giving additionally needs a vague number word (various above) before the class name.

Etc. optionally follows a comma – like and in lists. Indeed, et- actually means “and”, so that writing and etc. is illogical (see 303. Confusions of Similar Structures 4, #4).

Etc. has various synonyms, including among others, and others, and so on, and suchlike and to name but a few – but not usually “three dots” (…), which are more “Continental” than English (see 59.Paragraph Length). Importantly, etc. and its synonyms cannot accompany other example-showing expressions, like such as before French in (d) or include in (e) (see 24. Good and Bad Repetition and 138. Grammar Command Test 1, #7).

Say is an imperative verb (short for let us say) usable before or after its example(s). It normally suggests an expectation that the addressee can easily think of class members, but cannot decide which ones are relevant:

(f) Within a short distance, say 10m, everything changes.

This implies the addressee can think of possibilities covered by a short distance, and just needs to know which exact ones are relevant. Compare it with (b) and (e) above (which disallow say), where the suggestion is that the addressee needs to be informed, or at least reminded, of class members.

Say often accompanies an implied rather than explicit general class (a possibility with for example too):

(g) Prediction in economics poses problems that prediction in, say, astronomy does not.

The implied general class here is something like hard sciences. Observe the punctuation: surrounding just say instead of say + example.

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2. Example-Showing in a New Sentence

Most new-sentence example indicators contain a verb (underlined below). This is logical because any new sentence must have its own verb (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop).

one is …

an example is … (examples are …)

… is an example.

… is a case in point

they/these include …

they/these are illustrated by …

among these are …

these are … , etc.

they might…

Among these, one is… could also introduce a non-random class member, or start a complete class member list (see 263. Uses of “One” and “Ones”, #3); example cannot be replaced by instance (see 218. Tricky Word Contrasts 8, #5); etc. and its synonyms again cannot combine with other example-giving expressions.; and they might is useful for illustrating verb as well as noun ideas (see 228. Exotic Grammar Structures 5, #6).

Some writers wishing to give a simple example may think of both the example and the example-showing language at the same time. If so, they have to use the punctuation that goes with the language they have thought of. For example, thinking of such as at the moment of choosing the example means that the example must go into the same sentence as the class name – it cannot go anywhere else – and conversely an example after one is must be in a new sentence after a full stop. 

On the other hand, it is possible to think of an example without at the same time thinking of accompanying example-showing language. Then there is more choice about the punctuation. You can decide either to put the example into a new sentence, only afterwards choosing an appropriate example-showing expression (from the second list above), or to have no new sentence, choosing your expression from the first list as a result.

There are various possible reasons other than a prior language choice why a writer might want to locate or not locate an example in a new sentence. Sentence length is one possibility. Another is paraphrase of another writer’s words, where making structural changes ought always to be a priority (see 80. How to Paraphrase). Examples given in the same sentence as their class can be paraphrased as new-sentence ones, and vice versa. This kind of conscious decision-making must surely be the better approach, and the one that most successful writers will use.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: EXAMPLE LANGUAGE AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Readers wishing to strengthen their understanding and retention of the various points above are invited to try the following practice exercise, in which sentences have to be completed as instructed. The example language that is chosen should be as varied as possible. Answers are provided afterwards.

1. Give an example country in the same sentence:

Portuguese is spoken in many countries outside Portugal, _____________ .

2. Give an example country in a new sentence:

French is spoken in many countries outside France.  ________________.

3. Give TWO example numbers in a new sentence:

Some numbers cannot be divided by any other numbers except themselves and one.  __________________________________.

4. Give TWO example conjunctions in the same sentence.

A conjunction is a word that enables two verbs to exist together in one sentence, ______________________.

5. Write a possible beginning of this sentence:

Exercise ____________________________ , like preventing heart disease.

6. Give an example of a vocabulary-learning strategy in the same sentence.

Vocabulary learning requires numerous strategies, _________________.

7. Complete this sentence using “a case in point”.

Ancient Greek thinkers still influence academic subjects today. _________ .

8. Complete this sentence in any suitable way.

Dictionaries are an important aid to language learning.  Their uses _______________________ their helpfulness with word pronunciation.

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ANSWERS (look particularly at the grammar of these sentences, rather than the actual examples chosen).

1. Portuguese is spoken in many countries outside Portugal, for example Brazil.

2. French is spoken in many countries outside France. One is (or An example is) Algeria.

3. Some numbers cannot be divided by any other numbers except themselves and one. Examples (or Among them) are 7 and 13.

4. A conjunction is a word that enables two verbs to exist together in one sentence, such as (or like or for example or e.g.) “but” and/or “when”.

5. Exercise has numerous benefits, like preventing heart disease. (Although this example contains the verb preventing, the -ing makes a same-sentence example necessary)

6. Vocabulary learning requires numerous strategies, e.g. using a dictionary. (Although this example contains the verb using, the -ing makes a same-sentence example necessary)

7. Ancient Greek thinkers still influence academic subjects today. Aristotle is a case in point.

8. Dictionaries are an important aid to language learning.  Their uses include (or are illustrated by) their helpfulness with word pronunciation.