202. Some Strategies for Learning English

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Researchers have identified various measures that can be taken to maximise language learning success

STRATEGIES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING

Much research has been carried out into requirements for successful language learning. A rather surprising result is that there is no definitive list, but rather a great multitude of possibilities that do not all exist together in any one learner but which have different subsets possessed by different learners. The reason is probably that no two learners are alike, so that what brings success for some will not do so for others. To take one good example, having a good memory is obviously useful for language learning, but many learners succeed without it, relying instead on such qualities as determination and personal organization.

Nevertheless, there are some factors that do seem to be more important than others. Encouragingly, they tend not to be natural talents – logical given the fact that learning a new language is achievable by almost everyone. Motivation, for example, is usually necessary in order to achieve the perseverance required to master complicated grammar rules and large amounts of vocabulary. Knowledge of key things to do to maximise success – commonly called “language-learning strategies” – also falls into this category.

In this post I wish to describe some language-learning strategies that can be easily related to the unique features of English. Readers wishing to read more about strategies may be interested in the communication ones suggested in 80. How to Paraphrase,  177. How to Guess Meanings in a Text and 265. Grammar Tools for Better Writing.

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ENGLISH-LEARNING STRATEGIES

To learn any new language, one basically needs to do two kinds of thing: acquire knowledge, and practise using it. Without knowledge, one is obviously constrained in what one can say and understand; without practice, the knowledge will be inaccurately applied, even if memorised with great determination. Some of the strategies that I wish to mention assist knowledge acquisition, others assist practice.

KNOWLEDGE STRATEGIES

1. Discover your Errors

Errors of all kinds (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, spelling) are inevitable, and often necessary. However, they also need eventually to be minimised, and this can be greatly helped by discovering what they are.

One simple discovery method is observing how people react when you are communicating with them: if they fail to understand you, or you fail to understand them, then your language is probably faulty in some way. A problem with relying just on other people’s reactions, however, is that they are not reliable: people might not show any reaction at all to an error because they have anyway recognised what you are trying to say, or because they are too polite to show that they are struggling. As a result, you need to find other sources of help.

Possibilities include a tutor, friend or colleague who is willing to check the linguistic accuracy of your output; or a computerised language analysis tool (despite the imperfections noted in 275. How Computers Get Grammar Wrong 3); or answers to test and practice exercises. This blog has various tests that can help weaknesses to be discovered (see 138. Grammar Command Test 1,  193. A Test of Formal Language Use and 208. Verbs with an Object + Infinitive).

However you discover an error tendency, you need to act to reduce it. Making a note of it will help you remember what it is. There can also be value in analysing why the error occurred. For details, see below (also 188. Causes of Common Spelling Mistakes).

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2. Maintain Learning even when Communication is Easy

It seems logical that learning a new language can stop when one feels comfortable using it. However, that feeling of comfort does not mean that knowledge of the language is at a high level. Many adult learners of English manage to communicate successfully despite numerous errors of grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. Even accurate learners rarely come close to the competence of people who have spoken English from birth.

A major problem with stopping serious study of a new language is that it frequently leads to “fossilization”: conversion (through excessive repetition) of many of the errors still being made into habits so deep that they become very difficult to erase. Fossilization clearly needs to be avoided if you wish to become an expert user of English, and that means proactively continuing to identify and work on your weaknesses even after achieving a good level of communicative competence.

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3. Appreciate the Need for /ə/

Pronouncing English accurately requires mastery of much more than the individual consonant and vowel sounds of English and their possible and impossible positions and combinations. Most learners of English do know many of the extras, such as misleading spellings (extensively illustrated in this blog in posts like 29. Illogical Vowel Spellings and 155. Silent Consonants) and word stress patterns (see 125. Stress and Emphasis).

However, there are numerous aspects that seem less widely known (see 243. Pronunciation Secrets). One that is rarely mastered well is the very frequent tendency of unstressed English vowels to be pronounced /ә/ (like “e” in the) despite being spelt differently, so that /ә/ is actually the most common vowel sound in English. The unstressed “u” in industry, for example, is typically pronounced /ә/, not /ʌ/ (see 91. Pronunciation in Reading Aloud, #5).

Awareness of this trend is vital for communicating in Standard English. Pronouncing every vowel in every word exactly as it is spelt not only sounds unnatural to the majority of English speakers, but can even cause misunderstandings (see, for example, the discussions of can/can’t and and eighty in 144. Words that are Often Heard Wrongly).

To improve awareness, you could consider how to recognise unstressed syllables needing /ә/, and practise pronouncing them. Checking a dictionary, observing the pronunciation of expert speakers, and noting typical spellings of unstressed syllables (e.g. com- or -ness) are all useful recognition strategies.
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PRACTICE STRATEGIES

1. Understand Why Errors Occur

Errors are not all the same, but can be classified into a variety of types. It is useful to know what these types are because they should not all be dealt with in the same way. Here are some common types and suggestions for dealing with them.

SLIPS OF THE PEN/TONGUE: These are not caused by linguistic weakness – anyone can suffer them. They are usually mechanical accidents, for example unintentionally pressing the wrong computer key. They are unlikely to be systematically repeated and can hence be ignored.

KNOWLEDGE ERRORS: These result from faulty knowledge, e.g. a belief that generalizing with plural nouns needs the (see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”). There are various possible causes. Mother tongue rules are often behind misuse of the. Complicated rules, such as those for forming “tag” questions, are a frequent problem (see 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1), as are pairs of confusingly similar rules (see 133. Confusions of Similar Structures 1). The synonyms of a word or structure can cause errors with it if they follow different rules (see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1). Faulty knowledge is hard to identify by oneself: it is an error type that other people’s assistance is especially suited to.

SKILL ERRORS: These happen regularly despite the relevant rule being well known, probably because there has not yet been enough practice in applying the rule under the real-world pressures of multi-tasking in writing or reacting quickly in speaking. Further practice will sometimes eliminate skill errors, but while they persist an effort should still be made to identify and consciously avoid them. Errors with passive verb forms quite often seem of this type (see 142. Grammar Errors with Passive Verbs), as do organizational errors in writing (see 222. Information Orders in Texts).

DEVELOPMENTAL ERRORS: These are a type of skill error that is especially likely to happen but to disappear by itself without needing special attention. They are a necessary step towards full mastery of a complicated rule, and are made by most language learners. They usually need academic research to be identified; they may be worth noting if the results of such research can be accessed.

AVOIDANCE ERRORS: These result from reluctance to use a complicated structure. A typical example is saying isn’t it? in all “tag” questions because the varying correct forms need so much effort. It needs to be appreciated that effort is important for language development, and that resultant errors are nothing to fear.

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2. Practise Production as well as Understanding

A famous theory of the 1980s (championed by Stephen Krashen) argued that practising understanding a new language was enough to develop speaking ability. Most experts today disagree with this, urging speaking practice as well. My own experience suggests they are right: I learned French at school with equal attention to speaking and understanding, and I speak it probably better than I understand it; but I have taught myself Spanish in the Krashen way, and my speaking of it is much worse than my understanding.

Some people wonder how they can practise speaking when they cannot think of particular words or structures. The answer is that most things we cannot say can be paraphrased with language we know (see 80. How to Paraphrase).

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3. Practise the Written Language as much as the Spoken

Learning reading and writing in a new language differs in a rather unexpected way from learning speaking and listening: it cannot be acquired just by living where the new language is the main one in use. It must additionally be studied and practised in the formal way typical, for example, of school or college. This is true even for learners who are very literate in their mother tongue and speak their new language extremely well: their literacy rarely transfers without special tuition.

I once encountered evidence for this tendency when teaching an advanced English course to university students from other European countries. One had been brought up in his country by an English mother. His spoken English was as natural as my own, but his writing was no different from that of his peers. He had been taught to read and write in their language, and had apparently not practised very much at all in English. I note also that my own 12 year-old grand-daughter, who attends school in Spain, is already much happier reading Spanish than English. Her school offers special after-hours lessons in English literacy. This kind of practice seems essential.

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4. View Tutors as Facilitators, not Gift-Bearers

Language learning success depends much more on the learner than any tutor. The main role of tutors is to provide information about the language and to arrange as much top-quality practice as time allows. What they cannot guarantee is that the learners will work hard to memorise the information and will approach the practice in a serious and honest way, whilst seeking to supplement it outside class whenever opportunities arise. Only learners can do these things, and only by doing them will they make good progress. No tutor can make language-learning effortless for the learner.

144. Words that are Often Heard Wrongly

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Some common grammar mistakes result from mishearing English words

HOW PRONUNCIATION CAN CAUSE ERRORS

When we listen in a language that is not our mother tongue, we will inevitably misinterpret some of the sounds we hear, associating them with different words from those intended by the speaker. A well-known example in English involves number pairs like 15 and 50 (see 67. Numbers in Spoken English, #8). In this case, misunderstanding results.

Elsewhere, however, we might still understand the right meaning, but not the right grammar. This can happen, for example, with similar-sounding all and whole (see 308. Complexities of “Whole”). if we repeatedly misinterpret a particular word, the incorrect word we think we heard can easily become established in our memory so that we start to produce it in our speech and writing. 

This post is about errors of both kinds that I have noticed in an academic context. I wish to present a small number of them not so much in order to highlight them as to raise awareness of the importance of pronunciation study and accurate listening in the learning of English.

Pronunciation is, of course, just one among many causes of English errors. Alternative causes are considered in this blog under the headings Words with Unexpected Grammar (on the influence of similar-meaning words), Confusions of Similar Structures (on the influence of similar-looking grammar structures), 142. Grammar Errors with Passive Verbs (on the role of skill deficiency), and Words with Complicated Grammar (on difficulties resulting from a word having an unusually wide range of uses).

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EXAMPLES OF ERRORS CAUSED BY PRONUNCIATION

1. Misunderstanding of “Can’t”

People whose mother tongue is not English quite commonly hear can’t as can. Pronunciation is probably the sole reason. Two different points tend not to be appreciated. Firstly, the final “t” is unimportant: it is hardly pronounced at all because it undergoes “consonant reduction” as a result of being a “plosive” placed at the end of the word (see 91. Pronunciation in Reading Aloud, #6).

Secondly, the letter “a” is pronounced differently in the two words. In can, it is pronounced /Ə/ most of the time (but /æ/ for emphasis), while in can’t it becomes either /æ/ or (in some British English accents) the slightly illogical /ɑ:/ (see 29. Illogical Vowel Spellings). The way the vowel is pronounced is the main means of distinguishing can from can’t.

The most likely reason why the difference tends not to be appreciated is that learners of English very often believe English vowel letters always have to be pronounced more or less as they are spelt, as in most other languages, and both are spelt with “a”. The idea that many English vowels must change their pronunciation to either /Ə/ or /ɪ/ when pronounced weakly – as can usually is – is hard to remember, if learned at all (see 125. Stress and Emphasis and 202. Some Strategies for Learning English, #3).

To sum up, what seems to happen when can’t is misunderstood is that the /t/ is not heard and the /ɑ:/ is believed to signal can, since the normal pronunciation of can with /Ə/ is not easily appreciated or remembered.

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2. Misunderstanding of “… and eight(y)”

In a number-dictation exercise that I once used to do with Economics students, I noticed that many would write 482 as 492. I surmised that pronunciation was the second of two different causes. The first was the students’ ignorance of the need for and after the word hundred in spoken numbers (see 67. Numbers in Spoken English). The second was my pronunciation of and in an abbreviated way that was new to the students but typical of English: /әn/ or /nd/ or simply /n/. These causes meant that I was saying “four hundred n’eighty two” and the students were understanding n’eighty as ninety, despite the obvious phonetic differences.

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3. Wrong Preposition after “Reason”

The correct preposition for linking reason with a following consequence noun is for (see 111. Words with a Typical Preposition). An example is:

(a) There are numerous reasons for grammar errors.

The incorrect preposition that is sometimes used in such sentences is of. Part of the reason for it is probably transfer from another language. In French, for example, (a) would have the equivalent of of instead of for (cf. raison d’être – “reason of being” – in 135. French Influences on English Vocabulary). However, English pronunciation probably plays a part too, reinforcing the mother tongue influence.

In order to understand the role of English pronunciation in the error, it is necessary to examine the normal spoken forms of of and for. There is not so much difference as the spellings suggest. The phonological representations /Əv/ and /fƏ/ show that both words comprise just a vowel and a consonant. Two features appear to differ: the consonants (a surprise, given their identical spellings) and the consonant positions. However, in fast spoken speech, the position difference virtually disappears because the /Ə/ vowel is so weak as to be hardly heard. Therefore, the main difference between of and for is that one sounds like “v” and the other like “f”.

Now these two consonants are very similar – /v/ is just more “voiced” than /f/. As a result, they must be easily confusable, making it easy for someone expecting of after reason to think that that is what they heard and what they should always say.

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4. Wrong Preposition before “Consideration”

After the verb BE, it is normal to say under consideration (see 111. Words with a Typical Preposition), but after TAKE, into consideration. (see 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE, #13). A common error is to use under instead of into. As with the previous error, pronunciation is probably not the only cause (the very variability of the preposition is confusing), but it does seem to be a factor. To see why, we must again look at the normal pronunciation of these two prepositions.

Under is pronounced /ʌndƏ/ and into /intƏ/. Once more, a greater than expected similarity is revealed: the same number of sounds in each word, the vowels in the same positions (beginning and end), and two of the four sounds /n, Ə/ identical. Moreover, the /d/ of under and /t/ of into are as close to each other as /f/ and /v/ are. This means that the main difference between the two prepositions is their first vowels. It is surely not impossible that a learner of English might ignore this slight difference and believe under has been said when in fact it was into.

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5. Confusion of “Increasing” and “Increase in”

The pronunciation difference here between -ing /iŋ/ and in /in/ involves two very similar-sounding consonants. It will trouble speakers of any language that does not clearly distinguish them. The main grammar error that can result may be illustrated as follows:

(b) *There is increase in doubt about the value of jogging.

The error is the absence of a word like an or some before the singular countable noun increase (see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”). A very likely cause of the error is the fact that increasing could correctly replace increase in, and it does not need a word like an or some before it because it is not a noun like increase but a participle describing doubt. This change makes doubt the main noun, and it needs no a or some because it is uncountable.

My hypothesis is that English users whose mother language does not clearly distinguish /ŋ/ from /n/ could easily, on hearing increasing in sentences like (b), think that they had heard increase in, and hence believe that it was alright to use this noun without an article before it.

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6. Omission of -s and -ed

Errors with endings are often, of course, a result of a grammar rather than pronunciation confusion (see, for example, 142. Grammar Errors with Passive Verbs). However, a case can be made for the involvement of pronunciation at least sometimes.

One likely culprit is the common use by mother-tongue English speakers of what I call “lengthening”: pronouncing the same consonant ending one word and starting the next just once (with a time delay) instead of twice. Examples are the /n/ sound across can never, and the /f/ across enough food (see 91. Pronunciation in Reading Aloud, #6).

Lengthening involving -s and -ed is common. It is likely, for example, in writes something and dropped down. Obviously, learners not aware of lengthening might easily think that -s or -ed is not present in such combinations, and so drop them in writing.

The -ed ending could also fail to be heard as a result of the fact that it involves a “plosive” consonant (/d/ or /t/). Such consonants are often only half pronounced at the end of a word. They are pronounced most clearly when the next word begins with a vowel (e.g. dropped out, removed everything), and they are especially likely to be reduced before another (different) plosive (e.g. passed behind, argued convincingly) or at the end of a sentence.

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7. Wrong Article after “with”

The difference between with the and with a is not as great as it seems. The underlined vowels are both pronounced /Ə/. The difference would then appear to be just the number of times the “th” sound is pronounced. Even here, however, the real difference is smaller: in both combinations “th” tends actually to be pronounced just once, as described above (#6), the only variation being the length of time taken to do so (longer in with the).

The pronunciation of with the with only a single (prolonged) “th” must sometimes mislead learners of English into thinking that they heard with a, thus building up a misconception that with a is correct in places where it is not. There might even be wider damage to the understanding of a versus the.

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8. Confusion of “this” and “these”

The choice between these two visibly different words of course depends on whether they represent a singular or plural idea (see 204. Grammatical Agreement). The problem is that, although the spellings indicate a difference of vowel pronunciation (/ɪ/ in this, /i:/ in these), this is not so helpful when someone with a mother tongue that does not differentiate the two vowels is mainly learning English through speaking and listening. In this situation, it is easy think the same vowel is being used all the time, and to reflect that in writing by only ever using one spelling (usually this).

The difference between the two words is especially difficult for Spanish speakers to hear because Spanish words, besides only having one “i” sound, rarely end in the /z/ one – a secondary feature differentiating these from this.