286. Repeating in Different Words

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Informative paraphrase varies in type and linguistic form

FREQUENCY AND TYPES OF DIFFERENT WORDING

Repetition – of both statements and individual words – is common in academic and professional writing. It has various uses: enabling different things to be said about the same idea, helping readers to see links between different parts of a text, giving a reminder of something said earlier, and clarifying something written just before. For a survey of all these uses in this blog, see 24. Good and Bad Repetition.

In many cases, repetition is worded differently from what it repeats. Doing this is not compulsory with the first three of the above uses, but often seems to be preferred there because of a belief that unchanged wording might be judged monotonous and hence poor writing style. An unfortunate side effect is that readers can quite easily fail to recognise the rewording as equivalent to the original (see 5. Reading Obstacles 3).

By contrast, the more informative clarifying use of repetition must logically be in different words. It is this use that I wish to focus on in the present post. Although it too features in the repetition post, the variety of linguistic expression that it can involve is not examined in detail. The grammar and vocabulary possibilities are actually quite extensive.

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KEY FEATURES OF INFORMATIVE REWORDING

Informative rewording necessitates mention of two different things: the original wording and its paraphrase. Paraphrase needs to be distinguished from identification, the type of meaning in the following (from 117. Restating Generalizations More Specifically):

(a) The first Roman Emperor was Augustus Caesar.

Although Augustus Caesar here is equivalent to the first Roman Emperor, it is not a rewording: the two expressions are not synonyms. A true paraphrase of Roman Emperor would be something like “absolute lifelong ruler of the Roman Empire” (see 80. How to Paraphrase).

The need of informative rewording to be given in two stages is not unusual in writing: other information types that have it, besides identification, include examples, consequences, similarities, names and exceptions. The two stages of informative rewording may, like those of these other meanings, be presented together in one sentence or separately in two or more.

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SINGLE-SENTENCE REWORDING

The following are the main means of saying something and rewording it in the same sentence.

1. BE (Definitions)

Definitions are one of two types of informative rewording that can be expressed with BE.  It needs to be appreciated, however, that BE statements very often contain no rewording at all. Consider this:

(a) A bicycle is a conveyance.

The meaning of a conveyance here does not exactly correspond to that of a bicycle. The reason is that it applies to many other types of transport too, so that describing a bicycle with it does not indicate what distinguishes bicycles from them. For that, more information is necessary.

The usual way to create this more precise rewording is with extra wording before and/or after a general noun like conveyance:

(b) A bicycle is a two-wheeled conveyance (which is) propelled by human energy.

This is a classic definition format, with a relative pronoun (which) introducing more detail about the general noun, without an intervening comma (see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses, #6). The words by definition should not be added after the first BE (see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #2).

However, such sentences do not always make definitions, and are not the only way to make them:

(c) Sterilization is the cleansing destruction of micro-organisms.

Here, the additional definition wording after the general noun destruction starts with a preposition (of), a common alternative to a relative pronoun (see 252. Descriptive Wording after Nouns 1, #2).

One other way to define with BE is by means of a to verb (infinitive):

(d) To sterilize (something) is to cleanse (it) of micro-organisms.

This sort of definition typically has an infinitive before BE as well as after. Again, though, such a format is not always a definition. In the following example (from 119. BE before a “to” Verb, #5), the second infinitive names a result rather than equivalence:

(e) To climb Everest is to join a very select group.

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2. BE (Naming Statements)

In naming statements, the informative rewording says not what something means but what it is called. The name may follow on from defining wording or another name. Here is an example of the former:

(f) A Christian cleric in charge of a diocese is a bishop.

The elements within a BE naming statement are similar to those in a BE definition – but in a different order. Once again, such combinations do not always create rewording, other possibilities being identifying and describing (see 206. Ways of Conveying a Name, #2). To prevent misunderstandings, it is often advisable to replace BE with a dedicated naming verb.

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3. Other Verbs

Two alternatives to BE in definitions are MEAN and BE DEFINED AS. The latter is especially useful because it not only indicates explicitly that a definition is being given, but also allows a distinction to be made between definitions newly created by the writer and those relayed from somewhere else (see 238. Using a Verb to Perform its Action). For the first of these meanings the BE part of the verb is combined with can or may, for the second it is not (see 237. Auxiliary Verbs in Professional Communication, #4).

The main alternatives to BE when defining words precede a name are BE CALLED, BE NAMED, BE KNOWN AS, BE TERMED and BE REFERRED TO AS. All except BE KNOWN AS allow the same use of may/can. When a name is being equated to another name, these verbs typically accompany also or alternatively (e.g. is also known as…).

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4. Apposition

Apposition is consecutive noun expressions each referring to the same thing (see 77. Pairing of Same-Meaning Nouns). It resembles BE in allowing an idea to be either identified or reworded, but differs in that it does so incidentally within a sentence about something else. Rewording with it may be defining, naming or renaming:

(g) Sterilization, (in other words) the cleansing destruction of micro-organisms, is vital in the laboratory.

(h) The definite article, (in other words) “the”, sometimes has a non-definite meaning.

(i) Aubergines, (in other words) egg plants, are growing in popularity.

In all of these types, it will be seen, the second noun expression has two surrounding commas. Sometimes two dashes or two brackets are used instead (see 294. Parentheses); sometimes a full stop needs to replace the second comma or dash.

The optional use of in other words after the first comma has various alternatives, of which the most exact is that is or that is to say (for the difference, see 309. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 5, #7), or their common abbreviation i.e. (see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #8).

When a name precedes a definition, as in (g), a further alternative is or. When a definition comes first, as in (h), namely becomes possible. When both nouns are names, it is possible to say also called or alternatively known as (sometimes informally abbreviated to aka).

The use of or in apposition structures can sometimes be confusing. The problem is that this equivalence-showing meaning is the opposite of the more common alternative-naming meaning of or, indicating two or more different possibilities (see 266. Indicating Alternatives). In extreme cases, misunderstanding equivalents as alternatives can lead to time being wasted on dictionary consultation in order to obtain the already-defined meaning. Thus, readers need to be especially careful when encountering or (see “Preliminary Considerations” in 177. How to Guess Meanings in a Text).

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5. Relative Clauses

When a name directly precedes its definition, in the manner of sterilization in sentence (g), one can usually add who or which + equivalence verb (BE, BE DEFINED AS, MEAN) after the separating comma, e.g. sterilization, which is… in (g).

This use of who or which is technically called “non-defining, even though it is introducing a definition! The reason for the apparent contradiction is that it is actually outside the definition (inside which another relative clause – a defining one – will often be found). The name “non-defining” is an unfortunate one, better replaced here by something like “equating” because it indicates the exact equivalence of the noun before it to the definition after (see 34. Relative Pronouns and Commas).

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MULTI-SENTENCE REWORDING

When alternative wordings are presented in separate sentences, the second sentence often indicates this with special language. One factor governing the linguistic possibilities is how much of the first sentence is being reworded.

6. Rewording a Whole Sentence

It very often happens that a second sentence rewords all of the first:

(j) Excessive intake of alcoholic beverages has a deleterious physical effect. In other words, it is unhealthy to drink too much.

Here, the aim of the rewording is not to define or name any particular concept but to help the reader to understand a complicated or technical statement. 

In other words in this use is a connector – an adverb-like expression that shows a meaning link between adjacent sentences (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors). Its use in a new sentence is grammatically different from that in sentences like (g)-(i), where the rewording is not a verb-based statement. These alternative uses of in other words make it grammatically similar to for example (see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #4). That is to say has them too.

Another rewording indicator is to put it another way. This could be classified, like the others, as a multi-word connector, or it could be thought of as just an infinitive phrase with a commenting capability (see the end of 183. Statements between Commas).

One other alternative to a connector is what I call a “connector synonym” – usually a non-adverbial way of expressing a connector meaning (see 112. Synonyms of Connectors). The most basic in sentences like (j) is probably a starting This + equivalence verb: This means…, This is tantamount to saying…, This equates to saying… etc.

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7. Rewording Part of a Sentence

This kind of new-sentence rewording normally requires repetition of the original word(s):

(k) Only a bishop can grant permission.  A bishop is (defined as) a Christian cleric in charge of a diocese.

To use MEAN instead of BE (DEFINED AS) in such combinations, it is necessary to begin the second sentence The word(s) (repeated wording) mean(s)….

When the second sentence is naming rather than defining, a common formula is The name given to such (key wording from the definition) is… . When it is presenting an alternative name, one might say Another name for (earlier name) is….

285. Complexities of Question Words

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Grammatical aspects of English question words are surprisingly numerous

THE CHALLENGE OF QUESTION WORDS

Examining question words opens a window on a surprisingly wide variety of English grammar and vocabulary. Some of this will be familiar to experienced students of English. Most will know, for example, the difference between who and whom, and between what and which. Other aspects of question words, however, may not be so familiar – some, indeed, may even qualify as “exotic”. It is, of course, these wider aspects of question words that are the focus here.

Questions themselves can also be linked with a wide variety of grammar and vocabulary. Readers wishing to read about these in this blog are referred to the posts 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing,  105. Questions with a “to” Verb,  219. Wording next to Indirect Questions and 274. Questions with a Hidden Meaning.

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COMPLEXITIES

1. Word Class Variation

Despite the obvious similarities between question words, they actually do not all belong to the same word class (“part of speech”). Compare the use of how much in the following indirect questions:

(a) … how much gold costs today.

(b) … how much money gold is worth today.

(c) … how much gold varies in price.

In (a), how much is a pronoun. It represents not the noun gold after it but the unwritten noun money. It is the object of the verb costs, gold being the subject. In (b), how much is an adjective, giving information about the directly-following noun idea money. In (c), how much is an adverb giving information about the verb varies. It is not its object because VARY with this meaning allows no object.

The other question words can be placed into grammatical classes in a similar way. The main ones have the following possibilities:

Word Classes of the Main Question Words

Other combinations with how are usually adverbs if their second word is one (e.g. how quickly, how often) and adjectives otherwise (e.g. how quick, how old) .

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2. Equivalence to Nouns

The question word in indirect questions (not direct ones) can very often be paraphrased with a noun, for example reason for why, way for how and time for when. The main question word with no noun equivalent is whether (see 185. Noun Synonyms of Question Words):

(d) A major issue was the number of (= how many) attempts to allow.

In formal writing, there are some places where a noun is common. One is headings separating subdivisions of extended writing. For example, instead of How Languages are Learned a heading might say Language Learning Processes (see “Grammatical Form” in 178. How to Write a Heading).

Essay questions often replace a question word with a noun too. Unlike headings, though, essay questions of this kind usually need an extra verb in front in order to make their sentence grammatical. Thus, a question beginning Why…? might become Outline the reasons…, and one beginning How useful…? might become Discuss the usefulness… (see 94. Essay Instruction Words). The extra verbs, it will be seen, are typically in the base “imperative” form (see 128. Imperative Verbs in Formal Writing, #1).

Some essay questions have just an imperative verb and no noun equivalent of the question word. For example, What X…? might become Identify the X that… and How similar are…? might become Compare and Contrast… .

One other place where a noun is preferable to a question word is at the start of a sentence, where the indirect question is usually the subject of a verb (see 219. Wording next to Indirect Questions, #1). In the following example, what alternative form might be given to the question How much training is required?

(e) …is a source of dispute.

A possible beginning here is the amount/ quantity of training (that is) required.

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3. Non-Question Usage

Words that can act as a question word do not always do so. Most obviously, when and where can alternatively be conjunctions (see 64. Double Conjunctions). In addition, most question words can make relative clauses. Consider this indirect question:

(f) Historians wondered where alphabetic writing first emerged.

The underlined words here are recognisable as an indirect question because they begin with a word that can be a question word (where), they closely follow a word or phrase indicating a type of asking (wondered), and they have a noun role in the sentence (object of wondered) (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing).

Now consider (f) with wondered replaced by know the place. The word before where (place) would not then suggest asking (nor explaining nor knowing, the other possible question indicators), and the where… part would have an adjective-like role rather than a noun-like one, describing place. These are characteristics of the familiar type of relative clauses beginning with who, which or that, and they indeed indicate that the where clause above is similarly relative. Further confirmation is provided by the fact that where after location is replaceable by at which.

It is not just where that can be “relative” rather than question-asking (“interrogative”). All of the question words in the above table except how, how much and whether are the same (see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses). How usually becomes in which (e.g. the way in which, instead of *the way how). Whether does have a non-question use, but as a conjunction combining with or rather than as relative adverb (see 99. Meanings of “Whether…or…”).

Bear in mind, though, that a noun instead of a verb before a possible question word does not always produce a relative clause: an indirect question will remain if the noun is one of asking, like question, or explaining, like clarification, or knowing, like uncertainty (see 287. Speech and Thought Nouns). The indirect question will also keep its noun-like status: instead of being an adjective phrase describing the noun before it, it will be making a two-noun “apposition” structure with it (see 253. Descriptive Wording after Nouns 2, #3).

One other non-question use of indirect question forms is after the prepositions according to and depending on (see sentence [l] in 162. Writing about Classifications).

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4. Usage with “-ever”

Who, what, which, how much, how, when and where can combine with the suffix -ever or, more emphatically, -soever (how much becoming how[so]ever much). Whom and whose can only combine with -soever. Why links with the separate word ever.

An -ever word is always possible in questions, and often possible in other kinds of sentence too. In questions, it usually suggests its user cannot think of any possible answer (see 272. Uses of “Ever”, #2).

Why ever can only make questions (direct or indirect). However and however much can make questions or adverb-like additions to a longer sentence:

(g) However they tried, they could not succeed.

However here is an adverb meaning either “all” (saying all ways of trying failed), or “unidentified” (saying an unidentified way of trying failed).

Whenever and wherever can similarly make both questions and adverb statements, but in the latter they are conjunctions rather than adverbs.

Whatever, whoever, whomsoever, whosesoever and whichever can make questions, adverb statements or relative clauses:

(h) Whatever happens next?

(i) Whatever happens next, nothing will stop the process.

(j) Whatever happens next will be recorded.

The use of whatever in (i) is very like that of however in (g): its statement is adverb-like because it is not the subject, object or complement of the main verb (will stop), and the meanings of either “all” or “unidentified” are understandable. In addition, though, the -ever part of (i) carries the idea of unimportance, indicating that no next event will have any impact. This idea seems very common in all adverbial -ever statements (see 199. Importance and Unimportance, #8).

In (j), by contrast, the whatever part is the subject of the main verb will be recorded. The meaning of whatever is “anything which” (see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses, #4). Once again, there is a further meaning of either “all” or “unidentified”.

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5. Usage with Infinitives

All of the question words can ask a question with just an infinitive verb after them:

(k) The website explains what to do.

After why, however, an infinitive cannot have to (see 148. Infinitive verbs without “to”, #5).

Both direct and indirect infinitive questions are possible after every question word except whether, a maker of only indirect questions. For a detailed explanation of when to compose and use infinitive questions, see 105. Questions with a “to” Verb.

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6. Usage with Prepositions

Combinations like the following are probably common in most languages:

(k) By when should the parcel arrive?

By when here means not “at what time?” (the meaning of when alone) but “up to what time?”. All of the basic English question words can accompany a preposition in this way except how, whether, who and why. The equivalent of who after prepositions is whom.

An alternative, less formal preposition location in English is at the end (When…by?), e.g.:

(l) Who does this belong to?

(m) What did they do that with?

(n) Where do you come from?

(o) Which shelf is it next to?

In this use, whom is very often replaced by who (Who…to?). Although why cannot be used as shown, one of its meanings – seeking a purpose rather than a cause – is often expressed with What…for? (even though *For what…? cannot replace a starting Why…?).

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7. “Who’s?” versus “Whose?”

Both of these expressions can be either relative or interrogative. For the relative use, see 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #5. In the interrogative use, who’s is an abbreviation of who is – its apostrophe is not a possessive one. Its inclusion of the verb is means it can make a question without a neighbouring verb, combining just with a noun, adjective or adverb, e.g. Who’s next? (= “Which person is next?”).

Whose, by contrast, means “Which person’s?”. It must accompany or imply a separate verb. It can be an adjective describing a noun, e.g. Whose question is next? (= “which person’s question is next?”), or stand alone as a pronoun, e.g. Whose is next?.

The confusability of these two expressions mirrors that of it’s versus its (see 138. Test your Command of Grammar 1, #5).

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8. “How” + Adjective / Adverb

How is usable both with and without a following adjective or adverb. With one (e.g. How rich…? How easily…?), it means “how much” (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much), though the word much cannot be added in between (*How much rich…?). By itself, how enquires about the “manner”, “means” or “instrument” of a verb’s action (see 73. Prepositions for Saying How).

Appreciating this distinction is important for understanding essay questions. Consider this:

(p) How were Napoleon’s reforms effective?

Because no adjective or adverb follows how, it means “in what way?” The effectiveness of Napoleon’s reforms is accepted and just needs to be explained. However, if the question begins How effective…, how means “how much?”, indicating uncertain effectiveness that must be debated (see 94. Essay Instruction Words).