312. Grammar Command Test 3 (Rewriting)

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Take a short test to measure and increase command of grammar points explained elsewhere in this blog

DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST

This post offers a different kind of test from that in the two earlier Guinlist posts with a title like the above (see 138. Grammar Command Test 1). It presents isolated single or paired sentences and invites rephrasing of each using given wording. Rephrasing involves one or more grammar points from elsewhere within this blog, which are revealed and explained when answers are given.

As the other grammar-testing posts point out, the word “command” better describes the aim of grammar activities than “knowledge” because it suggests, in addition to knowledge of grammar rules, skill in their use. Knowledge alone of grammar rules in a new language is known to be insufficient for avoiding errors from the fact that most people who spend a lot of time and energy acquiring it through memorisation still often make mistakes in real communication (see 202. Some Strategies for Learning English).

Tests that use “rewrite sentences” are not a perfect way of proving command of grammar, but they do seem to have some value in this respect. They also have the value of practising the right way to perform the key skill of paraphrase (see 80. How to Paraphrase).

For a test of appropriacy rather than grammar, see 193. A Test of Formal Language Use. For one of vocabulary, see 273. Verb-Object Collocations.

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THE TEST SENTENCES

How can each highlighted statement below be rephrased so as to accommodate the wording shown next to it? Answers are in the next section.

(a) Kilimanjaro is the highest mountain in Africa.

Kilimanjaro is higher…

(b) Computers are located on the upper floor.

The floor…

(c) Industry pollutes in many ways.  For example, it discharges effluents.

…such as…

(d) It is not very difficult for cats to climb trees.

Cats do not…

(e) Granite outlasts most other stones.

The durability…is…

(f) Some argue that even electric vehicles cause pollution.

…are argued…

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ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS

(a) Kilimanjaro is the highest mountain in Africa.

⇒ Kilimanjaro is higher than any other mountain in Africa.

Use in the original sentence of a superlative adjective (highest) indicates that the noun it describes (Kilimanjaro) is being compared with more than one fellow members of its category, mountains in Africa (see the introduction to 305. Wording next to Superlatives). Higher, by contrast, indicates a comparison with just one.

The task, therefore, is to find an expression that allows a comparison with just one idea within the same category rather than a group. This is done above by adding any before mountain, but it could instead be done with all (+ plural mountains).

The word other is a further important addition: without it, there is a suggestion that African mountains exclude Kilimanjaro – that the latter might be in Asia or America, for example, or even be a high building rather than a mountain. Other is not needed in the original sentence because the status of Kilimanjaro as a mountain in Africa is more clearly shown there by is in between (see 220. Features of Complements, #1). For more about other as a category indicator, see 170. Logical Errors in Written English, #4.

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(b) Computers are located on the upper floor.

⇒ The floor where computers are located is the upper one.

In the original sentence, the adjective upper is just before its noun floor. Starting with the floor, however, requires upper to come later, with a link verb like BE in between (see 283. Lesser-Known Features of Adjectives).

The link verb here, added alongside the existing one are located, is is. The result of this addition, the presence of two verbs together in the same sentence, creates a need for special verb-accommodating wording that I have elsewhere called a “joining device” (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). The joining device above is the conjunction where. One could also say The floor containing computers…, where the joining device -ing is attached to a suitable verb without BE in front.

A third possibility is to paraphrase the original verb are located with wording that includes no verb at all, so that all need for a joining device is removed. A simple way to do this is with a preposition phrase (The floor with computers is…).

A second consequence of starting with the floor is a need for the…one with upper. Although, most adjectives can be placed after BE without needing extra words, upper always needs one or ones after it (or kind if describing an uncountable noun). For more about adjectives with this need, see 184. Adjectives with Limited Mobility, especially #4.

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(c) Industry pollutes in many ways. For example, it discharges effluents.

⇒ Industry pollutes in many ways, such as by discharging effluents.

Here, an illustration is worded in two different ways. The idea of “illustration” is indicated first by for example and subsequently by such as. Moreover, for example is in a new sentence after its associated generalization whereas such as is not.

The reason for this latter difference is the grammatical properties of the two expressions. For example is being used as a “connector”, an expression that shows a meaning link between two verb-based statements without combining them physically into a single sentence; whereas such as is a preposition, only able to show a meaning link between nouns inside a single sentence (see 1. Simple Example-Giving).

The preposition status of such as creates a further restriction too: any verb after it needs the -ing (gerund) form rather than a tense-showing form like discharges in the original sentence (see 70. Gerunds, #2). In the above example, discharging also needs by in front. This is because such as is introducing an adverb-like phrase saying how the action of the verb in its sentence (pollutes) occurs (see 73. Prepositions for Saying How).

One other point about for for example is that it is much less restricted than such as. Although such as cannot be used like for example in the original sentence, for example could easily replace such as in the rephrasing. In other words, for example has both a connector and a preposition use (see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #4).

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(d) It is not very difficult for cats to climb trees.

⇒ Cats do not find it (to be) very difficult to climb trees.
⇒ Cats do not have much difficulty (with) climbing trees.

Placing cats, the subject of the infinitive verb to climb, before the idea of “difficult” necessitates the use of a verb that can logically and typically link the two. One is find, as in the first rephrasing; the other is have, as in the second. With both, the not originally negating very difficult has to negate them instead.

Cats do not find… requires most of (d) to follow as an object. The starting it can be kept, either between that…is or without these words and optionally followed by to be. Next comes very difficult (without not because that is now at the start), followed by to climb trees (without for cats). For more on converting it sentences into the object of another verb, see 190. Special Uses of “it”, #2.

Using have, by contrast, requires the removal of it and use of the noun difficulty (as the object of have) instead of the adjective difficult. This change necessitates two others: adjective-requiring very before difficult must become noun-allowing much before difficulty; and the verb to climb must become climbing, optionally after with.

It may seem strange that a verb after difficulty should require a different form from one after difficult. There are indeed plenty of examples where a to verb is needed both times (e.g. after able/ ability, free/ freedom and willing/ willingness. However, it is surprisingly common for a noun and its related adjective to require different forms of the same dependent verb, other examples being possible (+ to) versus possibility (+ of…) and useful (+ to) versus usefulness (+ of…) (see 78. Infinitive versus Preposition after Nouns).

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(e) Granite outlasts most other stones.

⇒ The durability of granite is better than that of most other stones.

The prefix out– in verbs usually means “better than” (see 146. Some Important Prefix Types, #3). Thus, the verb outlasts means “lasts better (= longer) than”. Its subject and compulsory object name the two compared ideas.

If the idea of lasting is expressed with a starting noun (durability), that becomes the focus of the comparison, so that two types of durability are being compared rather than two stone types. Each type is indicated by words after durability: of granite in the first case, of most other stones in the second. To avoid repetitiveness, the second use of durability can be replaced by the pronoun that (see 63. Constraints on Using “the one(s)).

The idea of “better than” after durability can be expressed with either an adjective like better (+ than) or the preposition beyond (without than). Their association with durability is best shown by means of a link verb like BE (is above).

Using a verb like outlasts in (e) illustrates how ordinary vocabulary can quite often replace a grammar structure expressing a particular meaning (here -er than in comparisons: see 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #8).

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(f) Some argue that even electric vehicles cause pollution.

⇒ Even electric vehicles are argued by some to cause pollution.

Sentence (f) reports a statement in the common manner by placing it after a mention of its source (some) followed by a reporting verb (argue) + that…. In the rephrasing, by contrast, the passive form of the reporting verb has as its subject the wording that was originally the subject of the verb in the reported statement (electric vehicles).

This change necessitates putting the replaced subject (some) into a by phrase after argued, and giving the verb in the reported statement the to (infinitive) form (to cause). Such rephrasing is quite commonly possible with verbs that report statements with that (see 299. Infinitives after a Passive Verb, #2).

The meaning of by some in the rephrasing could alternatively be expressed with the adverb sometimes, positioned either in the same place or at the start of the sentence.

288. Reading Obstacles 11: Grammatical Subtleties

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Small grammatical features can add important meaning to a statement

GRAMMATICAL SUBTLETIES IN READING

It is a long time since the appearance of the last Guinlist post in the “Reading Obstacles” series (22. Reading Obstacles 10: Multiple Speakers in a Text). The primary reason for the wait has been that most of the topics I consider suitable for the series have been exhausted. Any that remain, moreover, have needed a long time for appropriate examples to be gathered. The topic of grammatical subtleties is certainly one of these, but happily its wait is now over.

What I mean by “subtleties” is very small grammatical features that convey important meanings. A rather obvious example, mentioned in this blog in the reading post 13. Hidden Negatives, is the fundamental negative word not, whose meaning changes the message of an entire utterance into its opposite. This post focuses on eight examples of a less obvious kind. Each is presented in a sentence alongside three suggested interpretations, of which only one is correct. The challenge is to find the correct interpretations, all of which are subsequently explained.

The aim of such an exercise is not primarily to highlight the grammatical points involved, but rather to enhance appreciation of the importance of trying to understand every part of a text, no matter how small its meaning contribution.

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INTERPRETATION EXERCISE

Each sentence to be interpreted is written in bold type below, and is followed immediately by the suggested interpretations, numbered (a), (b) and (c). The most correct interpretation is the truest paraphrase or implication of the bold-type sentence. It is identified and explained after the three choices.

1. Sport helps society like it does the individual.

(a) The individual is helped by both sport and society.
(b) Society and the individual are both helped by sport.
(c) Sport and the individual similarly help society.

ANSWER

The key here is the meaning of it does. It is a repetition of sport helps, the pronoun it repeating the noun sport, the verb does repeating the verb helps (see 212. Special Uses of DO 1, #1). This means sport gives help to two different things: society and the individual, as indicated by option (b).

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2. An alloy is a mixture of elements that has metallic properties.

(a) Alloys always have metallic properties.
(b) Alloy elements always have metallic properties.
(c) Element mixtures always have metallic properties.

ANSWER

The great grammatical variability of that (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”) places it firmly in the category of “multi-use” words, a common cause of misunderstanding in reading (see 3. Reading Obstacles 2). Here, that needs to be recognised as a relative pronoun (replaceable by which). It is thus repeating the meaning of a preceding noun and acting as the subject of the following verb has.

There are two preceding nouns separated by of (a mixture and elements). That refers to whichever is more grammatical and logical (see 28. Pronoun Errors, #3). Elements cannot be the noun repeated by that because its plural form would require plural have after that instead of singular has. Thus, a mixture (of elements) is what metallic properties are linked with , not elements themselves, ruling out (b) above.

Option (c) is also incorrect. It says all element mixtures have metallic properties, instead of only some. The idea of “some but not all mixtures” is conveyed in sentence 2 by that without a comma before it (see 34. Relative Pronouns and Commas). Since an alloy (= “all alloys”) is equated by is to this subgroup of element mixtures, possessor of metallic properties, (a) must be the correct answer.

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3. Two new questions, the future and the budget, were on the agenda.

(a) The agenda comprised two items.
(b) The agenda comprised three items.
(c) The agenda comprised four items.

ANSWER

Punctuation is the clue here, in particular the comma after budget. There is a rule that a comma should not normally separate a verb from its subject, yet the comma here is separating the verb were from budget, a part of its subject. The reason why this is possible is that the rule does exceptionally allow a separating comma when the verb subject ends with a parenthesis, i.e. two commas separating some of its constituent words (see 50. Right and Wrong Comma Places). Therefore, budget must be part of a parenthesis beginning with the comma after questions.

Parentheses comprising a noun (or a word group acting like a noun) usually follow directly after another noun or noun-like word group, and give further information about it – a situation technically called “apposition” (see 77. Pairing of Same-Meaning Nouns). Thus, the future and the budget is not an addition to the preceding idea of two new questions, but rather a clarification of it. Therefore, the agenda essentially comprised only two items, as stated by option (a).

For more about the confusability of parenthetical and list commas, see 233. Structures with a Double Meaning 3, #1.

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4. The army marched non-stop so that it could reach the river first.

(a) The army succeeded in reaching the river first.
(b) The army failed to reach the river first.
(c) The army may have reached the river first.

ANSWER

This is about the ability of so that to introduce either a purpose or a result. Purposes are plans for the future, with no guarantee of occurrence; results are actual occurrences. A purpose verb after so that must follow an auxiliary – can, may or will for present-time purposes; could, might or would for past-time ones. A result verb in this position will normally lack an auxiliary (see 32. Expressing Consequences).

The presence of could above allows a (past-time) purpose to be understood. Since purposes are not guaranteed occurrences, option (a) is not a justifiable conclusion. Option (b) is also ruled out, as non-occurrences are equally uncertain. This leaves (c) as the correct choice.

A result meaning is actually able to be understood above as well. It would involve could having not its purpose-showing meaning but its past-capability one, saying that the march of the army resulted in it having the capability of reaching the river first. Since capability is not a guarantee of achievement (see 246. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 2, #2), option (c) is again the right one.

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5. The ship was in trouble, when it reached the island.

(a) Reaching the island possibly caused the ship’s trouble
(b) Reaching the island probably ended the ship’s trouble.
(c) Reaching the island was irrelevant to the ship’s trouble.

ANSWER

The comma after trouble signals that when here means and then (see 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #4). This means the ship reached the island after it suffered trouble, so that option (a) is incorrect (its meaning only becomes possible with no comma before when). Option (c) is also incorrect, the reason being that when after a comma strongly implies a link between the two events in its sentence. Option (b) is the answer.

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6. The red triangles and circles are the smallest visible shapes.

(a) The smallest visible shapes are all red.
(b) Triangles cannot be among the largest visible shapes.
(c) Circles cannot be among the largest visible shapes.

ANSWER

The starting the here means the statement is about particular shapes, not general ones, and visible shows which ones. The main question is what red describes.

Red describes both triangles and circles, even though it is not written before circles. This can be understood because the, needed before circles for the same reason that it is needed before triangles, is also absent. In order to prevent red describing circles, it would be necessary to say the red triangles and the circles, repeating the but not red (see the third part of 36. Words Left out to Avoid Repetition). Because red describes both triangles and circles, option (a) is the correct one.

Option (b) is incorrect because triangles within it is a larger group than the red triangles, able to include triangles of other colours (see 283. Lesser-Known Facts about Adjectives, #4). The main sentence does not exclude non-red triangles from the largest visible shapes. Option (c) is incorrect because of similar logic concerning circles and the red circles.

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7. The work starting next week will be completed in two weeks’ time.

(a) The work will last two weeks.
(b) The work will last less than two weeks.
(c) The work will last more than two weeks.

ANSWER

in two weeks’ time means “two weeks from now” (see 132. Tricky Word Contrasts 4, #7). Thus, if the work starts next week (= later than “now”), and finishes two weeks from now, it must last less than two weeks – option (b). To say, like (a), that the work will last two weeks, it is necessary to end …completed in two weeks. The meaning of (c) would need … completed in over two weeks.

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8. There is a noticeable development in the region.

(a) It is easy to see that the region is developing.
(b) The region contains a noticeable new feature.
(c) The region has changed in a noticeable way.

ANSWER

The crucial feature here is a before noticeable. Its usability only with countable nouns (see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”) means that development, a noun with both countable and uncountable uses, is here countable. In some contexts, a development is a new occurrence, but linked with geographical regions it is usually something physically new, typically a building (see 201. Words with Complicated Grammar 1, #1). Only option (b), with the word feature, brings out this meaning.

Options (a) and (c) are incorrect because the idea in both of “change” reflects the uncountable use of development.

281. Words with Unexpected Grammar 4

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Grammar errors are likely with words that act differently from words like them in meaning

HOW GRAMMAR CAN BE UNEXPECTED

To use a word correctly, its grammatical properties must be as fully appreciated as its spelling, pronunciation and meaning. The grammar of most words is more than just the kind of word (“part of speech”) that they are: it is the way they are typically used and not used. For example, some verbs allow a following “object” and some do not; some nouns are countable (and hence able to be plural) and some are not; some adverbs can go between not and a verb and some cannot.

Many English grammar errors result from a poor command of the grammatical properties of specific words. The problem is sometimes just a lack of practice in following a correctly-memorized rule with the speed demanded by natural communication (see 202. Some Strategies for Learning English, Practice Strategy #1). Sometimes, however, grammar errors result from an incorrect belief about a word’s grammatical properties.

Such beliefs have various possible causes. One that is considered elsewhere in this blog is the word’s grammatical complexity. Different words have different numbers and types of grammatical possibilities and requirements, and where this variety is very great there is always a risk of the rules being misunderstood or confused (see 201. Words with Complicated Grammar 1).

Another possible cause of a mistaken belief about a word’s grammar is the occasional existence of one or more words in the same grammatical class that have a similar meaning but do not act in the same grammatical way. For example, it is common to believe incorrectly that legislation must be countable because law is (see 250. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar 1, #7).

The reason why the grammar of related words is so influential is probably that very often it certainly is a true indicator of how to use an unfamiliar word. It is this tendency for the majority of related words in the same word class to have the same grammar that justifies the grammar of words outside the majority being called “unexpected”.

This sense of “unexpected grammar” is what the present post deals with. As the title indicates, it is not the first to do so: to access the others, see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1. For information about unexpected meanings of words, see 284. Words with a Surprising Meaning.

The approach here is the same: examples of easily misused words are presented through an “odd-one-out” exercise. Each problem word is located somewhere within a list of similar-meaning words alongside a sentence where all except it are grammatically correct, and the challenge is to identify it. My prediction is that many readers will not correctly manage this in every case. Answers are given and explained afterwards.

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IDENTIFICATION EXERCISE

In considering the grammatical possibility of each listed word below, keep in mind that grammatical possibility is not the same as logical likelihood (see 100. What is a Grammar Error?). Some of the suggestions below would give a rather unlikely meaning but are still grammatically possible.

(a) The department is … to change its approach.

ATTRACTED, DISPOSED, INCLINED, MINDED, MOTIVATED, PERSUADED, PREPARED

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(b) In some cultures, chess is … to be a sport.

CLAIMED, CLASSIFIED, CONSIDERED, FELT, JUDGED, PERCEIVED, THOUGHT

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(c) Numerous … of crime examine its causes.

ANALYSES, ASSESSMENTS, CONSIDERATIONS, ENQUIRIES, EXAMINATIONS, EXPLORATIONS, INVESTIGATIONS, STUDIES

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(d) Dogs often show … to play games.

A DESIRE, AN INCLINATION, AN INSTINCT, A LOVE, A NEED, A TENDENCY, A WILLINGNESS, A WISH

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(e) Researchers need to be … funds.

AWARDED, GIVEN, GRANTED, HANDED, LENT, OFFERED, PROVIDED, SENT

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(f) Caesar … that he would repay his enemies.

GUARANTEED, PLEDGED, PROMISED, SWORE, THREATENED, UNDERTOOK, VOWED, WARNED

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(g) As Shakespeare …, “All the World’s a Stage”.

ASSERTED, COMMENTED, DESCRIBED, EXPLAINED, OBSERVED, NOTED, POINTED OUT

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ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS

The incorrect choices are as follows:

(a) *The department is ATTRACTED to change its approach.

Change is usable as either a verb or a noun (see “same as the verb” in 249. Action Noun Endings). Used above, it is a verb because it is followed directly by the object-like noun its approach. If change was a noun, of would be needed after it (see 31. Prepositions after Action Nouns 1).

Since change is a verb, its use without an ending after to can only be the infinitive form. The problem is that ATTRACT cannot be followed by an infinitive verb. The to that sometimes follows it is a preposition, not the start of an infinitive. Prepositions require any verb after them to have the -ing (gerund) ending (see 70. Gerunds, #2).

There is no logical reason why ATTRACT links with a following preposition rather than infinitive, especially when so many verbs with similar meaning do have an infinitive. The fact that the preposition is to is unusual, but by no means unique (see 35. Words Followed by “to-ing”).

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(b) *In some cultures, chess is CLASSIFIED to be a sport.

All of the verbs listed for this sentence typically accompany two nouns (chess and sport above), of which the second is a description of the first. When the verb is passive, the first noun precedes it as its subject and the second comes after but with added wording in between. This wording in the above sentence is to be. It is possible with all of the listed verbs except CLASSIFY, which needs as instead. PERCEIVE allows a choice between to be and as. CONSIDER, JUDGE and THINK also allow a choice, but between to be and no link wording at all.

CONSIDER is actually found occasionally with as too, but only to express a slightly different meaning (see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #3).

When the above-listed verbs are in the active voice, their subjects become objects placed directly before the second noun (e.g. Some cultures classify chess…). The wording that must or can be added before the second noun remains the same. If it is as (after CLASSIFY, CONSIDER or PERCEIVE) or “zero” (after CONSIDER, JUDGE or THINK), the second noun is said to be an “object complement” (see 92. Verbs with an Object + “as”). With to be, however, it is not.

For more about CLASSIFY, see 162. Writing about Classifications.

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(c) *Numerous ENQUIRIES of crime examine its causes.

All of the listed words here are nouns derived from a verb. If their related verb was used instead, crime would be its object. Crime could as a result be called “object-like”.

Object-like nouns are often linked to their verb-like partner noun by a preposition. The typical preposition is the one used above: of. This is the correct preposition after all of the listed words except enquiries, which needs into instead when meaning “studies”.

There is a fairly reliable explanation of why enquiries cannot have of: its related verb ENQUIRE also needs into to combine with an object. In general, nouns derived from a verb that uses a preposition before its object (i.e. verbs mostly classified as “prepositional”) have the same preposition when used with an object-like noun (see 31. Prepositions after Action Nouns 1).

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(d) *Dogs often show A LOVE to play games.

After the noun love here, the infinitive to play should be of playing. It is only after the verb LOVE that the infinitive form is correct. The clue that love in (d) is a noun is its use after a as the object of show. Contrasting grammatical usage of related words in different word classes is quite common (see 78. Infinitive versus Preposition after Nouns).

The other nouns listed earlier all need PLAY after them to be in the infinitive form. This does not mean, however, that nouns in general commonly combine with an infinitive in this way. Instead, there are particular subgroups, perhaps identifiable from their meaning (see the last part of 239. Nouns Combined with a “to” Verb). What is surprising about love is that, although it does not belong to any of these subgroups, its meaning suggests it should – to a subgroup that I have named “wish” verbs.

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(e) *Researchers need to be PROVIDED funds.

Provided here needs with after it. The other verbs do not because they are the kind that can have an “indirect” object. In other words, their active form allows two following nouns that, with a suitable order, both lack a preceding preposition. The active form of PROVIDE allows two following nouns, but one always needs a preposition (see the end of 126. Verbs with an Indirect Object).

Ability to have an indirect object is, like other verb properties (such as having no object at all) not wholly predictable from a verb’s meaning, but nevertheless likely with certain meaning types. A typical meaning of indirect-object verbs is that of transferring something from one of the noun ideas to the other. PROVIDE can cause error because it too possesses this meaning despite not allowing an indirect object. It instead has to be classified as a “prepositional” verb (see 123. Prepositional Verbs Containing a Noun). Other verbs like it include FURNISH and SUPPLY.

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(f) *Caesar UNDERTOOK that he would repay his enemies.

All of the listed verbs here can introduce a statement of future behaviour, either a promise or a threat (see 147. Types of Future Meaning, #2). UNDERTAKE is the only one after which the statement would rarely, if ever, begin with that rather than an infinitive (…undertook to repay…).

The probable reason comes from the fact that promise and threat verbs only allow a following that statement if its verb has a different subject from their own. This occurrence is likely to be ruled out by the meaning UNDERTAKE, since undertakings typically concern an action by the person giving them, not by anyone else.

An infinitive is also possible with PLEDGE, PROMISE, THREATEN and VOW (see 302. Verbs with a Partner Infinitive, #1), but not with GUARANTEE (except when it is passive), SWEAR and WARN.

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(g) *As Shakespeare DESCRIBED, “All the World’s a Stage”.

This sentence reflects the fact that different speech verbs introduce reports in different ways. Described is the only one in the list that needs a following it in (g). A clue to this need is in the fact that DESCRIBE is also the only verb in the list that cannot replace a preceding as with a following that: sentence (g) could easily begin Shakespeare asserted (etc.) that…, but not *Shakespeare described that… .

Unfortunately, not all verbs that lack the ability to combine with that allow as…it instead. Common ones that do besides DESCRIBE are DEFINE, DEPICT, EVALUATE, EXPRESS, PRESENT, PUT IT, REPRESENT and SUMMARISE (see 279. Grammatical Variations among Citation Verbs, #5). Most other verbs that cannot have that cannot have a preceding as at all. Examples are ALLUDE TO, CALL, CRITICISE, REFER TO, REJECT, SINGLE OUT and SPEAK OF.

273. Verb-Object Collocations

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Custom and logic cause some objects of a verb to be more typical than others

DEFINITION AND EXTENT

Although a verb’s ability to have an object is a grammatical property, the actual objects that it has are more dictated by logic or custom. Thus, logic would normally rule out colours as an object of MEASURE, while custom causes an effort to be common after MAKE but not after DO (see 141. Ways of Using MAKE).

Some possible verb-object combinations are more common than others. Those that occur with noticeable regularity are often categorised as “collocations” (see 16. Ways of Distinguishing Similar Words, #5). A major subgroup of verb-object collocations that this blog examines in detail elsewhere involves object nouns spelled like verbs (see 173. “Do Research” or “Make Research”). Further frequent combinations are presented in posts on common small verbs: HAVE, GO, DO, GIVE, TAKE,  COME and SEE.

Here I wish to present other verb-object collocations that are common in English. Some are best identified by starting with a noun and examining the verbs it is likely to accompany as an object, while others are more easily found by starting with a verb. In both cases, it is surprising how often the partner word comes easily to mind. Readers who find the same are likely to already have a good “feel” for English.

My preferred way of presenting verb-object partnerships first from nouns and then from verbs is by means of two quizzes. These are followed by a matching exercise.

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OBJECT-DETERMINED VERBS

If the noun benefits is made the object of a verb meaning “cause”, the verb is likely to be not CAUSE but BRING (see 277. Advantages & Disadvantages, #4).

Below is a quiz that presents nouns like benefits and invites you to imagine each as the object of various verbs, in order to identify any combinations that sound unlikely. The number of unlikely combinations each time is variable: it might be none, or one, or more than one. Answers are provided afterwards.

1. …doubts

CAST, EXPERIENCE, EXPRESS, HAVE, PROVIDE, RAISE, RECEIVE, SUFFER

2 …problems

ADDRESS, CAUSE, ENCOUNTER, EXPERIENCE, FACE, GIVE, HAVE, SOLVE, SUFFER, TACKLE, UNDERGO

3. …academic references

CHASE UP, CHECK, CONSULT, FOLLOW UP, INSPECT, LOOK UP

4. …a role

ASSUME, CONDUCT, FILL, HAVE, PERFORM, PLAY, TAKE

5. …a meeting

ARRANGE, ATTEND, CALL, CHAIR, CONVENE, CREATE, HAVE, HOLD, SET UP

6. …debate

CREATE, GENERATE, INITIATE, MAKE, RAISE, SPARK, START, TRIGGER

7. …a target

ACHIEVE, ESTABLISH, HAVE, GIVE, HIT, MEET, MISS, SET

8. …a law

DRAW UP, ENACT, ESTABLISH, INTRODUCE, LEGISLATE, MAKE, PASS, RATIFY, SET UP

9. …taxes

AVOID, COLLECT, EVADE, EXPAND, INCREASE, LEVY, PAY, RAISE, REDUCE, REFUND

10. …a message

CARRY, COMPOSE, CONVEY, RECEIVE, SEND, SIGNAL, TAKE, TRANSMIT, WRITE

11. …a theory

BUILD, COMPILE, CONSTRUCT, DEVELOP, DRAW ON, FIT, FORMULATE, PRESENT, PROPOSE, USE

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Answers

1. Doubts

Unlikely verbs: PROVIDE and RECEIVE. Doubts are usually communicated or felt. The first of these meanings is typically expressed with CAST, EXPRESS or RAISE, the latter with EXPERIENCE, HAVE or SUFFER. Uncountable doubt is also usable with all of these verbs except RAISE, and is additionally common in the phrase throw doubt on…..

2. Problems

Unlikely verb: UNDERGO. It typically has an action noun or -ing gerund as its object, e.g. examination, investigation, repairs and training (see 173. “Do Research” or “Make Research”?, #6)

3. Academic References

Unlikely verb: INSPECT. Another meaning of a reference is “written support for someone’s job application”. This is most likely to accompany just CHASE UP, CHECK and FOLLOW UP.

4. A Role

Unlikely verb: CONDUCT. The most typical verb by far is PLAY.

5. A Meeting

Unlikely verb: CREATE. Holding a meeting is a more formal event than having one, suggesting an agenda and multiple participants. Have a meeting can mean “meet” or “be attending a meeting” or “be soon attending a meeting” (see 116: Rarer Uses of HAVE, #3 and #4).

6. Debate

Unlikely verbs: MAKE and RAISE.

7. A Target

Unlikely verb: GIVE.

8. A Law

Unlikely verbs: LEGISLATE and SET UP. LEGISLATE is an “intransitive” verb (see 113. Verbs that cannot be Passive). As it means “pass a law”, there is no need to actually say law.

9. Taxes

Unlikely verb: EXPAND.

10. A Message

Unlikely verb: SIGNAL. The idea of a message is already present within the meaning of this verb.

11. A theory

Unlikely verb: COMPILE. The object of this verb is likely to be some kind of group, such as a catalogue, list or selection.

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VERB-DETERMINED OBJECTS

To identify combinations where the verb suggests the object rather than the reverse, this quiz is like the first, except that the lists are of suggested objects rather than verbs.

12. POSE…

complications, dangers, difficulties, issues, obstacles, problems, questions, threats

13. MOUNT…

a display, an exhibition, an investigation, an offensive, an operation, a procedure, a search, a ship, a show

14. LAUNCH…

an attack, a career, an initiative, an investigation, a publication, a policy, a product, a project, a rocket

15. TACKLE…

backlogs, issues, mysteries, operations, problems, questions, subjects, tasks

16. SPARK…

action, discussion, debate, enthusiasm, freedom, interest, questions, a response, suffering, sympathy

17. EXPOSE…

corruption, deceit, difficulties, flaws, lies, suffering, the truth, weaknesses, wrongdoing

18. EXERT…

authority, force, a hold, influence, power, pressure, strength, temperature

19. DRAW UP…

agreements, arrangements, documents, lists, plans, policies, procedures, processes, programmes

20. EXACT

…a calculation, concessions, gifts, payment, a price, punishment, a toll, taxes, retribution, vengeance

21. DEVOTE… (to…)

attention, effort, energy, importance, one’s life, a project, resources, space, time, writings

22. WREAK…

changes, damage, destruction, devastation, discoveries, havoc, revenge, a transformation

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Answers

12. POSE

Unlikely object: complications (more likely to follow CAUSE). The most typical objects are problems and questions.

13. MOUNT

Unlikely objects: a procedure (often paired with INITIATE) and a ship (often paired with BOARD or LAUNCH). Here, MOUNT means either “present” (a display, exhibition, show) or “stage”. A third meaning, not represented above, is “ascend” (stairs, a horse).

14. LAUNCH

Unlikely object: none. Most of the common objects of MOUNT are also usable after LAUNCH. MOUNT has the idea of start-to-finish supervision, while LAUNCH focuses more on initiation.

15. TACKLE

Unlikely object: operations. The “deal with” meaning of this word is derived from the sporting concept of trying to gain a ball from an opponent (see 137. Words that Reflect English Culture, #4). Most common objects name a source of difficulty.

16. SPARK

Unlikely objects: freedom and suffering. The objects of this figurative verb meaning “cause” tend to be positive outcomes, either events like discussion or emotions like enthusiasm.

17. EXPOSE

Unlikely object: none. Objects of this verb are typically hidden evils. Even the truth can fall into this category because it can represent truths that are repugnant as well as those that are inspiring. With the latter, REVEAL is more suitable than EXPOSE.

18. EXERT

Unlikely object: temperature. All of the other objects are personal attributes or powers that someone can use to pressurise others into giving something.

19. DRAW UP

Unlikely object: processes. This verb implies human planning, something not likely to be found in processes, which occur more naturally (see 210. Process Descriptions).

20. EXACT

Unlikely objects: a calculation and gifts. This verb has two common object types. One, often with a from phrase after the object, is desirable gains achieved through force. Gifts are ruled out here because they are usually made freely. The other object type, often with a following on phrase, is inflicted suffering of some kind. Calculations may involve suffering, but they are not usually inflicted.

21. DEVOTE

Unlikely object: importance (often paired with ATTACH or ATTRIBUTE: see 198. Indicating Importance, #2). Most of the common objects of DEVOTE are personal abilities or possessions that could also be objects of GIVE (see 244. Special Uses of GIVE, #5). DEVOTE implies more effort, or bestows a greater value on what is given.

Like GIVE, DEVOTE in the active form normally needs two nouns after it, one naming a recipient. However, its recipient noun must always be the second one (after to) – the two nouns cannot be reversed with to removed (see 126. Verbs with an Indirect Object, final section).

22. WREAK

Unlikely object: discoveries. Like INFLICT, this verb has the idea of forcing other people to experience something (expressed by the object) that is definitely or possibly undesirable. The people in question can be named or described with an on phrase after the object. The past simple tense and past participle of the verb are both wrought.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: MATCHING VERBS WITH THEIR PREDICTABLE OBJECT

Some verb-object combinations are close to being fixed expressions. The following exercise presents a number of examples all mixed together. The task is to separate them out. Answers are, as ever, given afterwards.

Answers

bear the brunt, beg the question, buck a trend, cast a shadow, contract an illness, court disaster, hike prices, repeal a law, stimulate demand, strike a balance, sue for peace, tip the balance.

242. Words with Unexpected Grammar 3

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Grammar errors are likely with words that act differently from words of similar meaning

HOW GRAMMAR CAN BE UNEXPECTED

Grammatical information is found not just in grammar books, but also in dictionaries. Rules within the former tend to cover a wide variety of words, while those within the latter cover far fewer or even individual words. An example of a grammar book rule is the tense needed by verbs to express a particular meaning. An example of a dictionary rule is the need for verbs to have –ing after LOOK FORWARD TO. In language courses, these two kinds of grammar tend to be called “grammar” and “usage”. My preferred terms are “broad grammar” and “narrow grammar”.

Learning the narrow grammar rules of English can be a major challenge for anyone lacking experience of the language from a young age. One obstacle is the existence of words whose grammatical possibilities are so numerous that they are hard to remember and easy to confuse (see 201. Words with Complicated Grammar 1). Another is the very large overall number of narrow grammar rules.

This latter problem is mitigated by the fact that the same rule often applies to various words with similar meaning within the same word class. For example, the possibility of choosing between the to and -ing forms of a verb after happy (happy to see…, happy seeing…), depending on whether the verb represents a brief or ongoing idea, also applies to numerous other emotion adjectives, such as delighted, disappointed, envious and satisfied (see 203. Expanding an Adjective with Words after it); and it does not usually apply to adjectives of other kinds, such as thought ones like uncertain or convinced and appearance ones like tall or elegant.

Yet using meaning to reduce the learning burden also brings problems, since it is not reliable. Thus, among emotion adjectives there are some that do not allow the choice between to and -ing after them, notably “desire” adjectives like eager, keen and willing, which allow only to. It is this unpredictability that I mean by the term “unexpected grammar”. It seems to be a common cause of grammar errors, and is the subject of multiple posts within this blog (for a full list, see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1 and 250. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar 1.

In order to present further examples of common errors probably caused by the grammar of numerous related words, I again offer an “odd-one-out” exercise. Various commonly misused words are each placed somewhere within a list of similar-meaning words alongside a sentence where only the latter are grammatically correct, and the task is to identify the problem word. My prediction is that many readers will not correctly manage this in every case. Answers are given and explained afterwards.

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IDENTIFICATION EXERCISE

In considering the grammatical possibility of each listed word below, keep in mind that grammatical possibility is not the same as logical likelihood (see 100. What is a Grammar Error?). Some of the suggestions below would give a rather unlikely meaning but are still grammatically possible.

(a) It is … to learn the language of a country before going there.

DESIRABLE, HELPFUL, PROFITABLE, USEFUL, WORTH, VALUABLE.

(b) With careful thought, various possibilities will … themselves.

DEVELOP, ESTABLISH, MANIFEST, PRESENT, REVEAL, SHOW

(c) As Williams (2018) …, carbon emissions are a “hidden polluter”.

HOLDS, INDICATES, MAINTAINS, POINTS OUT, PUTS, RECOGNIZES

(d) Successful businesses … problems emerging.

ANTICIPATE, ENVISAGE, EXPECT, FORESEE, IMAGINE, PREDICT

(e) Doctors support the … of exercising every day.

CUSTOM, HABIT, TENDENCY, PRACTICE, ROUTINE, STRATEGY

(f) Saturday is not a usual day for going to … .

CHURCH, CINEMA, HOSPITAL, TOWN, MARKET, SCHOOL

(g) We are pleased to say that a refund is … to be provided.

ABLE, CERTAIN, EASY, LIKELY, READY, SURE

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ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS

The incorrect choices are as follows:

(a) *WORTH to learn

It is not always appreciated that worth is a preposition: its similarity of meaning to adjectives like useful and valuable suggests that it too is an adjective. As a preposition, worth cannot be followed by a verb in the to form (to learn above), instead requiring the -ing form – learning (see 70. Gerunds). The listed adjectives, on the other hand, very easily allow a following to verb (see the end of 103: Commenting with “it” on a Later Verb).

Another way to correct (a) is by adding it after worth. This meets worth’s need for a noun-like following word, allowing to learn to remain unchanged (see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #1).

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(b) *DEVELOP themselves.

Compared to some other languages, English has a less frequent need for verb objects that are -self words (see 268. Types of “-self” Object). A major area of difference seems to be with verbs that in English can change from the passive to the active form without necessitating much other change in their sentence (see 4. Verbs that don’t have to be Passive).

DEVELOP is a verb of this type (see 201. Words with Complicated Grammar 1, #1). Sentence (b) could have either develop (= show development) or be developed (= receive development) after will. The word order would remain the same, and adding themselves would be incorrect (a -self word would need a human subject of DEVELOP and would suggest special effort). Thus, (b) can be corrected by removing themselves.

None of the other verbs listed for (b) are like DEVELOP: if they are used in the active form, they must have an object – either a -self word to represent the same idea as the subject, or an ordinary noun or pronoun (see 143. Subtleties of “-self” Words).

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(c) *As Williams (2018) PUTS

PUT used as a “citation” verb, alongside a quotation of a source writer, needs a following it: the verb is best thought of as PUT IT rather than just PUT (see 190. Special Uses of “it”, #4). None of the other verbs listed for this sentence either need or allow a similar use of it. A rare other verb that is like PUT IT is PHRASE IT.

This difference between PUT IT and many other citation verbs is not the only one. Many other citation verbs allow a choice between as before them and that after (but not both together!), whereas PUT IT can only have as (see 279. Grammatical Differences between Citation Verbs, #5).

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(d) *EXPECT problems emerging

In this sentence, expect is followed by an object noun (problems) that is also the subject of a verb after it (emerging). In such situations, some second verbs need -ing, some need to and some allow either. Everything depends on the choice of first verb. EXPECT as a first verb necessitates a following to (either …problems to emerge or …problems to be emerging), whereas all the other verbs listed for this sentence necessitate just -ing.

The common idea shared by all of the listed verbs is prediction. There does not seem to be much in the meaning of EXPECT to justify its exceptional need for to. However, under the more general heading of “anticipation” there are some other verbs with the same need (see 208. Verbs with an Object + Infinitive, #6). EXPECT also needs to when there is no intervening noun (see 302. Verbs with a Partner Infinitive, #1). For more on -ing after verb objects, see 232. Verbs with an Object + “-ing”.

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(e) * the TENDENCY of exercising

Here, the noun tendency has been combined with a verb (EXERCISE) to make not a statement but a noun phrase, the object of an earlier verb (develop). The problem is that the means of making the combination, namely of …-ing, is incorrect, despite being correct after all of the other nouns listed for this sentence. The correct way to make this particular combination is with the verb’s to form (tendency to exercise).

As in (d), the correct grammar choice depends on the choice of the first word in the structure. In general, if the meaning of this word involves the idea of regularity, of is likely to be necessary after it, but tendency (like inclination) is an exception requiring an infinitive instead. For a list of other nouns that are typically followed by an infinitive, see the end of 239. Nouns Combined with a “to” Verb.

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(f) *going to CINEMA

Cinema here is a singular countable noun and hence needs the or a or similar in front (see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”). The main question here is why the other listed nouns lack this need, since they too are commonly observed to be countable. The answer is that these other nouns do have an uncountable use as well, removing the need for any special word in front of them. Countably they refer to the location of a particular activity, and uncountably to the activity itself. Thus, the school indicates a school building, whereas school indicates education.

As the listed nouns for this sentence show, many public place nouns have these grammatical alternatives. However, cinema is one of a small number that unexpectedly lack them, needing a or the before both meanings, and hence need to be specially noted. Others include mosque, surgery and station (see 235. Special Uses of “the”, #4).

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(g) *is EASY to be provided

Here, the passive infinitive verb after is easy (…to be provided) should be active (…to provide). This seems rather illogical, since the meaning of the infinitive seems passive – its object (a refund) is mentioned before it.

The key fact here is that easy belongs to a quite large adjective group after which an infinitive always has passive meaning but an active form. Others like it include useful, difficult, safe and rewarding. They can generally be recognised from the kind of meaning they have, the main kinds being usefulness, ease, danger and enjoyability (see 83. Adjectives before a “to” Verb).

In the example sentence above, easy is the only adjective that rarely links with a passive verb; the others are all likelihood adjectives, which need a passive infinitive for passive meaning and an active one for active meaning (e.g. …a refund is likely to arrive). However, easy is also quite similar in meaning to strong likelihood adjectives like likely and certain, and this seems a good reason why it might sometimes be mistakenly considered one of them.

For more about certain, see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #2.

214. Grammar Command Test 2 (Correcting)

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Take a short test to measure and increase command of common grammar difficulties

DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST

This is the second Guinlist post inviting readers to identify deliberate grammar errors in a paragraph and then explaining the grammar rules that the errors break (see also 138. Grammar Command Test 1). Most of the rules are also mentioned elsewhere in this blog, but are repeated here in order to advertise those other parts or provide useful reminders of their content.

As the earlier post points out, the word “command” better describes the aim of grammar study than “knowledge” because it suggests, in addition to knowledge of grammar rules, skill in their use. Knowledge alone of foreign language grammar rules is known to be insufficient for avoiding grammar errors from the fact that most people who spend a lot of time and energy acquiring it through memorisation still often make mistakes when they get into real communication.

A paragraph with grammar errors is not real communication, but it should be a better test of command than mere questions about rules. It has the additional benefit that, combined with the answers and explanations, it can assist important learning strategies like discovering your weaknesses and understanding why they occur (see 202. Some Strategies for Learning English).

For some advice on recognising grammar errors, see 100. What is a Grammar Error?. For a list of posts dealing with specific common errors, go to the Common Errors page. For more test posts, click on “Test” in the CATEGORIES menu on the right of this page.

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THE TEST PARAGRAPH

Find the grammar errors in the following paragraph, before reading the explanations below to see how successful you were. The paragraph sentences are numbered to assist reference to their content. The paragraph is rewritten with corrections after the explanations.
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(1) The language learning strategies are things a learners can do for maximising their communicative competence. (2) There are actually numerous possibilities can be identified, so that the key question become which are the most useful among them? (3) In the past, many researches had been made in this area, but common sense can also enable to see strategies that possessing a special value: they are fairly easy to be found. (4) Basically, a good strategy need to provide a plentiful knowledge for target language and/or extensive practice to use it, in addition it must suit the emotional and intellectual make-up of individual learners. (5) One of the best-known strategy that meets most of this needs is living in a close contact with people speak the language as their mother tongue. (6) This strategy makes learners to speak fluently: we become much better to learn something when we do it intensively. (7) However, it will not by itself stop grammar errors to be made.

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CORRECTION AND ANALYSIS OF THE ERRORS

The paragraph contains 25 deliberate errors. It is again surprising that my computer’s WORD program highlights very few of them as potentially wrong (for more on this problem with computers, see 68. How Computers Get Grammar Wrong 1). Readers who have managed to recognise and suitably correct at least 18 of the errors with very few unnecessary changes probably possess a good command of grammar.

1. The … strategies (Sentence 1)

Before a group of nouns, the “belongs” to the last, here strategies (see 38. Nouns Used like Adjectives, #2). This is a plural noun with generic meaning (helping to make a generalization) – a typical context for not using the (see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”). Thus, the should be dropped. It is more able to have generic meaning in combination with some kinds of singular countable noun (see 89. Using “the” with General Meaning).

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2. a learners (S1)

A cannot accompany a plural noun (see 204. Grammatical Agreement). The correction is either to drop it or to remove -s from learners. Combining a with -s is an example of a confusion of similar structures.

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3. for maximising (S1)

Expressing a purpose with for… -ing is not possible after many verbs, including DO. Here, it would be correct to say to maximise, either alone or after in order or so as. For details of when for…-ing can correctly express a purpose, see 60. Purpose Sentences with “for”.

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4. can be identified (S2)

Add that or which in front. These words – relative pronouns – act as a “joining device”, enabling two verbs to be in one, not two, sentences (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). The above sentence has the two verbs are and can be identified.

It is true that some relative pronouns can be unmentioned but still understood. However, the one needed here is not of that kind. To be unmentioned, a relative pronoun must be either the object of the verb after it, without an intervening comma (see 34. Relative Pronouns and Commas) or the subject of a verb lacking a “modal” (will, may, should etc.). In the first case, one just drops the relative pronoun; in the second, the partner verb must additionally become a participle (see 52. Participles Placed after their Noun, #4).

In the above sentence, that/ which is the subject of identified, and the modal can is present. The reason why modals cannot be dropped is that doing so changes the meaning (see 192. When BE can be Omitted).

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5. become (S2)

This is a plural verb with a singular subject (question) – another error of agreement. The necessary singular form has -s (see 12. Singular and Plural Verb Choices).

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6. …among them? (S2)

The question mark here should be a full stop because the question is indirect (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing).

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7. many researches (S3)

Research is usually an uncountable noun and hence cannot be plural. This means its ending should be dropped and many should be singular much. For a list of other uncountable nouns that, like research, are often wrongly used as if they were countable, see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”.

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8. had been (S3)

Change had to has. The past perfect tense (with had) implies “before the main past time that is the focus here” – not simply “long ago” (see 171. Aspects of the Past Perfect Tense). The past time in question here is not before another, more central past time. The correction is the “present perfect” form has been, not was, despite the past-referring adverbial in the past. This is because in the past does not give precise enough information about when in the past the research took place.

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9. made (S3)

The verb MAKE is the wrong one for expressing the intended meaning with research (see 173. “Do Research” or “Make Research”?). One could use the slightly informal done instead, or carried out (surprisingly not informal despite being a “two-word” verb) or undertaken.

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10. enable to see (S3)

ENABLE belongs to a subgroup of cause verbs that can be followed by a to (infinitive) verb (see 32. Expressing Consequences) . When they are, they must usually have a noun expression in between (see 65. Verbs that Mean “Must” or “Can”). Hence, a simple way to correct this error is to add a noun expression after enable, for example the informal pronoun us or formal one (see 211. General Words for People). Alternatively, one could replace enable with make it possible (see 190. Special Uses of “It”, #2).

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11. that possessing (S3)

The correct form here should be either that possess or possessing alone (see 133. Confusions of Similar Structures 1, #3).

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12. to be found (S3)

This passive infinitive should be its active equivalent to find. The rule involves infinitives after BE + Adjective (are…easy above). Some adjectives allow a passive infinitive to show receiving the action of the infinitive (e.g. X is willing to be helped = X accepts receiving help), but others, including easy, need an active infinitive in this situation. For lists of adjectives of each kind, see 83. Adjectives before a “to” Verb.

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13. need (S4)

This should be needs. The explanation is similar to that for #5 above. It is true that NEED sometimes lacks -s after a singular subject; however, this is only possible with negative and question forms (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”).

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14. a plentiful knowledge (S4)

Knowledge is an uncountable noun, and hence rarely has a. Since the reference here is to knowledge in general, not particular knowledge, a “zero” article is preferable to the.

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15. knowledge for (target language) (S4)

For is the wrong preposition. Knowledge is typically followed by of or about, depending on whether the knowledge covers all of the following noun idea or some (see 134. Words with a Variable Preposition, #2). Here, the likelier meaning is “some”, necessitating about.

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16. target language (S4)

Like #1 above, these are two grouped nouns after an incorrect article choice: they need either the or a, not “zero”. The article-determining noun language here is a kind that could be countable or uncountable depending respectively on whether it means one particular language or language in general (see 23. Noun Countability Clues 3: Subtypes). Here it means the former, so is countable. A before it would indicate an unidentified particular language, the an identified one. Perhaps the former is more likely here.

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17. to use (S4)

This verb and the noun just before it (practice) together make a close combination called a noun phrase (see 252. Descriptive Wording after Nouns 1). The problem is that descriptive verbs after practice have to be in the -ing form, with or without in. For a wider discussion of nouns that cannot have a following to verb, see 78. Infinitive versus Preposition after Nouns.

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18. in addition (S4)

This should start a new sentence and have a comma after it. The reason is the following verb must suit, which cannot be in the same sentence as the previous one (needs to provide) because new verbs need a new sentence, unless they have a joining device (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). In addition looks like a joining device but is not; it is a “connector” instead (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors).

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19. best-known strategy (S5)

A plural noun is needed (ending -ies). It is easy to think that the preceding one of necessitates a singular, but in fact a noun after one of is always plural. The reason is that the singular noun implied by one is not the noun after of, but an unmentioned one just before of: the whole phrase means “one (strategy) of the strategies”. The first of the two nouns is not mentioned because it would be repetitive (see 165. Confusions of Similar Structures 2, #6).

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20. this needs (S4)

This is another agreement error: singular this with the plural noun needs. This requires either a singular noun or a change to the plural these (see 204. Grammatical Agreement). Either is actually possible here because need can be countable or uncountable: countable highlighting subtypes in these needs, uncountable highlighting a general concept in this need.

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21. a close contact (S5)

Contact, meaning “interaction”, is an uncountable noun like knowledge (#13), and so cannot normally have a. Since the reference here is to contact in general, a “zero” article is required, not the. Note that the countable noun a contact means “an influential acquaintance”, and is an example of an activity location.

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22. people speak (S5)

As in #4, a relative pronoun (who or that, with no preceding comma) is needed with speak in order to have it in the same sentence as the earlier is. The relative pronoun cannot be left unmentioned and “understood” because people is the subject of speak, not its object.

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23. to speak (S6)

Delete to. A verb after MAKE has no to except when MAKE is passive (see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1 and 141. Ways of Using MAKE).

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24. better to learn (S6)

Change to learn into at learning. Some adjectives can combine with a following to verb, but better meaning “more able” is not one. Instead, it needs the preposition at, just like such near-synonyms as adept, clever, competent, effective, expert, good and skilled (see 203. Expanding an Adjective with Words after it).

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25. to be made (S7)

To be should be being: the verb STOP does not allow its object to be the subject of a following to verb. The only possible use of a to verb is to express a purpose of the person who stops, corresponding to in order to (see 208. Verbs with an Object + Infinitive, #1).

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THE CORRECTED PARAGRAPH

If the above paragraph is corrected in the ways suggested above, it would read as follows. Alternative corrections may sometimes be possible.

(1) Language learning strategies are things learners can do (in order) to maximise their communicative competence. (2) There are actually numerous possibilities that can be identified, so that the key question becomes which are the most useful among them. (3) In the past, much research has been undertaken in this area, but common sense can also enable one to see strategies possessing a special value: they are fairly easy to find. (4) Basically, a good strategy needs to provide plentiful knowledge of the target language and/or extensive practice using it. In addition it must suit the emotional and intellectual make-up of individual learners. (5) One of the best-known strategies that meets most of these needs is living in close contact with people who speak the language as their mother tongue. (6) This strategy makes learners speak fluently: we become much better at learning something when we do it intensively. (7) However, it will not by itself stop grammar errors being made.

193. A Test of Formal Language Use

 

Here is a short test for measuring and increasing ability to write in a formal style

THE NATURE OF THE TEST

Two of the most popular posts in this blog are 46. How to Avoid “I”, “We” and “You” and 108. Formal and Informal Words. The fact that they both deal with formal style suggests that this aspect of English is of particular interest to Guinlist readers. As a result, it seems a good idea to offer something that allows the content of both posts, as well as of others on a similar theme, to be revised and practised.

This post is similar to 138. Grammar Command Test 1 and 214. Grammar Command Test 2: it invites readers to identify and correct deliberate errors in a short paragraph, and then discusses the corrections. The errors this time, however, are of style rather than grammar (for the difference, see 100. What is a Grammar Error?).

A list of major style topics considered elsewhere in this blog is in 166. Appropriacy in Professional English. The full range of the Guinlist posts on formal style can be accessed by clicking on “Formal Style” in the CATEGORIES menu on the right of this page.

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THE TEST PARAGRAPH

The paragraph below has numerous informal expressions that are best avoided in formal writing. Readers are invited to identify them and suggest formal equivalents. A list of answers with explanations follows the paragraph, and the paragraph itself is rewritten at the end of the post.

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IDENTIFICATION OF INFORMALITIES

The paragraph contains at least 28 informal expressions. Success in recognising and suitably rewriting at least 20 of them with very few unnecessary changes probably indicates good knowledge of formal English style.

1. can’t monkeys

Words with missing letters (“contractions”) should be written out in full in formal style: cannot instead of can’t.

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2. Why…?

This is a direct question introducing a topic. Indirect questions are more common for such a purpose in formal writing, though not compulsory. An indirect question needs introductory wording like One may wonder… or A key question is… (see 219. Wording next to Indirect Questions). The question itself should have its subject monkeys before all of the verb cannot speak (…why monkeys cannot speak…), and should end with a full stop, not a question mark (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing).

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3. You might think

You is typically avoided in formal style (see 46. How to Avoid “I”, “We” and “You”). When it is the subject of a verb that also has an object, as here, a common avoidance strategy is to make the verb passive. This changes the object into the subject, enabling you to be left unsaid.

A further problem here, however, is the length of the object (the rest of the sentence after think). English prefers to put long subjects at the end of a sentence, replacing them with a “dummy” it in the subject position at the start (see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “it”). Thus, using the passive here should produce It might be thought…. The next word should probably be that, since its absence after a speech verb is slightly informal.

An alternative correction is simply to replace you with one (One might think that…: see 211. General Words for People).

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4. it’s because

Change it’s to this is. The contraction –’s is obviously informal, but saying it is because instead of this is because to explain a whole statement in a previous sentence is also not very formal. Generally it should represent the subject of a previous statement rather than all of it (see 28. Pronoun Errors, #1).

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5. they’ve got

GET is nearly always informal. Formal equivalents vary according to which of its many meanings is involved (see the end of 108. Formal & Informal Words). In this case, have by itself is possible – it is neither formal nor informal (see 116. Rarer Uses of HAVE). Possess is a more formal alternative.

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6. things like that

Thing(s) is often but not always informal (see 260. Formal Written Uses of “Thing”). This informal use could be replaced by suchlike.

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7. But (as a matter of fact)

A contrast is being made here between you might think in the sentence before (= appearance) and as a matter of fact (= reality). These ideas are in different sentences. Showing a relation between ideas in different sentences is an informal use of but. Its more common use, stylistically neutral and reflecting its status as a conjunction, is to show a relation between ideas in the same sentence (see 25. Conjunction Positioning).

One way to remove the informality is to change the full stop before but into a comma. Another is to replace but with a connector like however or nevertheless (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors).

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8. as a matter of fact

This is a multi-word connector. It is unusual for connectors to be informal – another example is besides (see 20. Problem Connectors, #6). A more formal equivalent is in fact.

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9. big difference

Big, like GET, is nearly always informal. The choice of substitute usually depends on the noun being described (see 108. Formal and Informal Words). Important is not normally a possibility (see 198. Indicating Importance). A suitable choice here is major.

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10. we find it

Like you, we often needs to be avoided in formal style. Making the verb passive is a simple solution here: it is found. Even more formally, one could say it is located.

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11. So there’s

A consequential so at the start of a sentence is like but in #7 above. To be more formal, either change the preceding full stop into a comma, or replace so with the connector therefore.

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12. So there’s

Say there is to avoid the contraction.

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13. a lot of space

A lot is always informal. Without of, it is sometimes an adverb, replaceable by greatly (with verbs) or much (see #15 below), sometimes a pronoun. With a following of, as here, it is usually a pronoun (see 160. Uses of “of”, noun use #5).

The choice of pronoun replacement depends on whether the represented noun is uncountable, like space here, or plural countable. In the first case, we can say a large amount (of), a large quantity (of) or a great deal (of). In the second case (not applicable here), a large number (of) is possible, or simply many (without of) or, very formally, numerous (see 81. Tricky Word Contrasts 2, #9).

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14. give out

Multi-word verbs are usually quite informal (see 108. Formal & Informal Words). A more formal, Latin-derived equivalent here is produce or emit.
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15. a lot (more sound)

Say much instead. This replacement is possible here but not in #13 because a lot is now an adverb: giving information about the comparative word more (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much, under “Very”). For a full discussion of much with comparative adjectives and adverbs, see 98. “Very”, “Much” and “Very Much”.

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16. Humans got

This use of informal GET can be paraphrased with acquired or even evolved or developed.

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17. I mean

This verb with subject I is acting like a connector. Formal equivalents are that is to say or in other words.

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18. a bit like

Like a lot, a bit is informal and grammatically variable (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much). One could say instead a little like.

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19. to start with

A slightly more formal two-word verb that could replace this one is to begin with. Both act like a sentence-spanning adverb. Only a few verbs can do this, some in the -ing form, some with to (see 183. Statements between Commas). The adverb equivalence means that adverb expressions are also a replacement possibility. One could say at the beginning or, very formally, initially.

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20. Maybe

This informal adverb equates to perhaps or possibly. It should not be confused with the verb may be (see 26. One Word or Two?).

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21. dropped down

Another two-word verb, this can be replaced by the more formal descended.

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22. the biggest cause

With cause, biggest is best replaced by greatest or main.

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23. going round

The verb GO makes numerous two-word verbs, most quite informal (see 176. Ways of Using GO, #6). This one can be replaced by moving or walking.

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24. That pushed

It would be possible here to say this instead of that. Both refer back to using two (legs) in the previous sentence, but that also highlights its great distance in time from the present day (see 234. Adjective and Pronoun Uses of “that”). Its slightly informal feel might be because it prevents exclusive focus on the fact being described.

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25. In my opinion

For detailed advice on avoiding I/me/my in opinion-giving, see 107. The Language of Opinions. Here, one might replace the above phrase with arguably or drop it and make the verb seems to be.

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26. pretty high

Pretty is a very informal “degree” adverb indicating moderate strength of a following adjective or adverb. It has numerous equivalents of a more formal nature including fairly, moderately, quite and rather (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much). The last seems best here because high is expressing something undesirable, a typical situation calling for rather.

Degree adverbs are also illustrated by a lot/much in #14 above and a bit/a little in #17. Note that pretty/fairly go only before base adjectives and adverbs, not comparative ones; a lot/much go only before comparative ones; while a bit/a little can accompany both base and comparative forms.

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27. You won’t hear

To avoid this personal pronoun + contraction, say either one will not hear or there is no likelihood of hearing (see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences, #4).

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28. don’t easily get

Change the contraction to do not, and replace get with suffer from.

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THE CORRECTED PARAGRAPH

If the above paragraph is corrected in the ways suggested above, it reads as follows. Alternative corrections are often possible.

One may wonder why monkeys cannot speak. It might be thought that this is because they possess no larynx (voice box), wrong-shaped teeth, a different tongue, and suchlike. In fact, however, monkeys have a larynx too. The major difference between a human larynx and a monkey one is the position: it is located lower in humans than in monkeys. Therefore, there is a large amount of space above a human larynx. The result is that human voices can produce much more sound. Humans probably acquired their lower larynx through evolution. In other words, they were a little like monkeys initially, but slowly their larynx descended. Perhaps the greatest cause was the change from moving on four legs to using just two. This pushed the head more forward and the larynx lower. Arguably, the price of this is rather high. There is no likelihood of hearing monkeys speaking, but they do not easily suffer from food stuck in their windpipe!

138. Grammar Command Test 1 (Correcting)

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Take a short test to measure and increase command of common grammar difficulties

WHAT IS “COMMAND” OF GRAMMAR?

This is the first of two Guinlist posts offering a type of grammar test that I once composed for an end-of-year university exam – identifying and correcting deliberate grammar errors in a written paragraph. Readers are invited to try the test for themselves, and then read through the answers and their explanations. Most of the errors are also mentioned elsewhere in these pages; they are repeated here in order to advertise those other parts or provide useful reminders of their content.

The word “command” in the title above has been preferred to “knowledge”. It covers not just knowledge of grammar rules but also skill in their use. Knowledge alone of foreign language grammar rules is known to be insufficient for avoiding grammar errors from the fact that most people who spend a lot of time and energy acquiring it through memorisation still often make mistakes when they get into real communication.

A paragraph with grammar errors is not real communication, but it should be a better test of command than mere questions about rules. It has the additional benefit that, combined with the answers and explanations, it can assist important learning strategies like discovering your weaknesses and understanding why they occur (see 202: Some Strategies for Learning English).

For some advice on recognising grammar errors, see 100. What is a Grammar Error?. For a list of posts dealing with specific common errors, go to the Common Errors page. For more test posts, click on “Test” in the CATEGORIES menu on the right of this page.

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THE TEST PARAGRAPH

The paragraph below has errors of grammar and punctuation. The latter are included because they are best explained with grammar rules. A corrected version of the paragraph is provided at the end of the post.

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CORRECTION AND ANALYSIS OF THE ERRORS

The paragraph contains 24 deliberate errors. I was amazed that my computer’s WORD program only underlined one of them in blue as potentially wrong (for more on this problem with computers, see 68. How Computers Get Grammar Wrong 1). Recognising and suitably correcting at least 18 of the errors with very few unnecessary changes would probably indicate a good command of grammar.

1. why is coal

The verb is here needs to follow its subject coal. The reason is that the question is indirect and hence, unlike direct ones, unable to have any part of the verb before the subject. The need for an indirect rather than direct question is a result of it introducing a topic in a formal written text, a situation where English does not normally have direct questions (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing).

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2. electricity source

Add an before these paired nouns. Three rules explain why it is needed: (a) the article before paired nouns is determined by the second of them (source), since the first is merely describing it like an adjective (see 38. Nouns Used Like Adjectives); (b) if the second noun is singular and countable (as source is), it must have either a(n) or the (see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”); and (c) a(n) is the right choice if the meaning of the whole phrase is “generic” – lacking reference to a particular time (see 89. Using “the” with General Meaning).

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3. is easily

Change the adverb easily into the adjective easy. In this “complement” position after is, it is normal to have an adjective or noun expression, not an adverb like easily (see 220. Features of Complements). You could only add easily here before an adjective (e.g. is easily the best – see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much).

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4. several … advantage

Add plural-showing -s to the countable noun advantage: the vague number word several can only accompany countable plural nouns (see 204. Grammatical Agreement).

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5. it’s cheapness

Remove the apostrophe. The required meaning is “of it”, but it’s means “it is”. This is an extremely common error even among speakers whose mother tongue is English.

The probable reason why the apostrophe is so often incorrectly added is that a common meaning of apostrophes – that of possession (see 58. Optional Apostrophe Endings) – is being expressed. The reason why no apostrophe is possible is that its is an adjective, not a noun; only nouns can have possessive apostrophes.

Other “possessive adjectives” are my, his, her, their, your and our (see the end of 204. Grammatical Agreement). There is also whose (both the relative and the question word), not to be confused with who’s (see 285. Complexities of Question Words, #7).

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6. it is readily available

Change to its ready availability – a noun phrase instead of a subject-verb statement. The reason is that it is linked by and to a preceding noun phrase (its cheapness), the rule being that expressions linked by and all need the same grammatical form as the first (see 93. Good and Bad Lists).

Note how changing the adjective available into the noun availability also requires readily, an adverb, to become the adjective ready. This is because adverbs describe verbs or adjectives but not nouns (see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs, #2). For general advice on changing adjectives into nouns, see 255. Nouns Made from Adjectives.

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7. etc.

This abbreviation has the right meaning (suggesting an unfinished list: see 54. Sentence Lists 1), but is redundant here because its meaning has already been expressed by such as. Having the two together is an example of unnecessary repetition (see 1. Simple Example-Giving and 24. Good and Bad Repetition). To correct, delete etc. and insert and after cheapness.

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8. however

This should start a new sentence, with a comma after it. The reason is that it is located between two verb-based statements (both with is), the rule being that such statements must be in separate sentences unless they have a joining device (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). However looks like a joining device but is not; it is a “connector” instead (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors).

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9. to recommend

Change to of recommending. Although possible can be followed by a to verb, possibility cannot (see 78. Infinitive versus Preposition after Nouns and 181. Expressing Possibility).

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10. is that,

Remove the comma. The conjunction that precedes one only in special circumstances (see 50. Right and Wrong Comma Places).

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11. produce

Change to singular produces so as to agree with the singular subject coal (see 12. Singular and Plural Verb Choices).

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12. to heat

Delete to. Verbs after MAKE have no to except when MAKE is passive (see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1, [a], and 141. Ways of Using MAKE).

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13. in addition

This is a connector like however (see 7 above), and should be corrected in the same way.

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14. so difficult

Change so to very. It is normally used only when the writer expects the strength of the adjective to be already familiar to the reader (see 156. Mentioning What the Reader Knows Already, #5). Here, the writer does not have this expectation and is communicating the strength of the difficulty.

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15. because of

Remove of. With it, because forms a multi-word preposition; without it, a conjunction (see 61. “Since” versus “Because”). The conjunction is needed here because the reason after it contains a verb (is) – prepositions link with just a noun or noun equivalent (see 174. Eight Things to Know about Conjunctions, #1). For more about because of, see 72. Causal Prepositions.

An alternative correction is to keep of and reword the reason as a noun equivalent (because of its great bulk). However, this would necessitate similar rewording of the two other reasons in the list. Removing of is easier.

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16. is very bulky

Add it before is. After the conjunction because, verbs need a noun or pronoun subject. They can only drop their subject after a conjunction of the “coordinating” kind, like and (see 174. Eight Things to Know about Conjunctions, #3).

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17. harm

Change to singular harms so as to agree with the singular subject it (see 12. Singular and Plural Verb Choices).

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18. the workers,

Remove the comma. It precedes a relative pronoun (who) that helps to define which workers are meant. So-called “defining” relative pronouns cannot have a preceding comma (see 34. Relative Pronouns and Commas). Normally there would be no later comma either (after extracting it), but another reason for a comma – being just before and – exists here.

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19. extracting

Change to extract. Any verb linking with which needs an ordinary tense form, here either are extracting (present continuous) or extract (present simple). To understand why, see 52.Participles Placed Just after their Noun and 133. Confusions of Similar Structures 1, #3. Extracting is not an ordinary tense form, but a participle or gerund.

It is better to have present simple extract than present continuous are extracting because the reference is to all times, not a particular one.

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20. limited

Add it is just before. As in 19, there is a need for an ordinary tense form (again present simple), this time in the passive voice. Limited by itself with passive meaning is a participle rather than an ordinary tense form..

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21. the electricity’s generation

Remove the. Both of the following nouns are uncountable with generic reference – a situation normally requiring a “zero article” rather than the (see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”).

An alternative correction is the generation of electricity. The rule about the is less stringent when there is a preposition (of) between the two nouns.

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22. electricity’s generation

Remove –’s. Although it is often possible on the first of two paired nouns, it is not here. The reason is the particular kind of noun pair: the second noun expressing an action affecting the first, and the first referring to a general idea. Adding –’s is only usual when the first noun in such a pair refers to a specific idea (see 58. Optional Apostrophe Endings, #J). With the general meaning that electricity has here, it is correct to use an adjective-like first noun (see 136. Types of Description by Nouns, #7). 

An alternative correction is to use of (the generation of electricity – see 31. Prepositions after “Action” Nouns 1 and 160. Uses of “of”, #1).

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23. the others

Remove -s. Other here is an adjective (it “describes” the following noun energy source). Adjectives cannot have -s. Other can only have -s when it is not an adjective – when there is no following noun. In such cases it is a pronoun, and with plural meaning needs -s (see 133.Confusions of Similar Structures 1, #2).

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24. source

Add -s. To avoid this very common error, it may help to remember that a noun after one of the must be plural. The reason is that the singular noun implied by one is not the one after of, but an unmentioned one after one: the whole phrase means “one (source) of the sources”. The first of the two nouns is unmentioned to avoid repetition (see 165. Confusions of Similar Structures 2, #6).

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THE CORRECTED PARAGRAPH

If the above paragraph is corrected in the ways suggested above, it would read as follows. Alternative corrections may sometimes be possible.

In considering why coal is still used as an electricity source, it is easy to recognise several major advantages, such as its cheapness and its ready availability. However, there is no possibility of recommending it. The most important reason is that coal produces harmful gases, especially carbon dioxide, that make the earth’s atmosphere heat up. In addition, it is very difficult to transport because it is very bulky, it harms the workers who extract it, and it is limited in supply. There would be much more benefit if electricity generation used one of the other energy sources, such as the sun.