221. Multi-Word Prepositions

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English has numerous word combinations that work together as a preposition

GENERAL NATURE AND IMPORTANCE

Prepositions, like other established word classes (“parts of speech”), tend to be thought of as single words but can also be multi-word (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #3). Prepositions of two, three or even more words can be identified, though the last word will always be a familiar shorter preposition like to. Common examples are along with, according to, in front of and on the basis of. Some grammarians call one-word prepositions “simple” and multi-word ones “complex”.

Multi-word prepositions resemble multi-word conjunctions and multi-word connectors in being surprisingly numerous. This means that studying them is likely to be a useful language-learning exercise. There are various aspects that can be considered: what they are, what they comprise and what they mean. Identifying and classifying these are the main concerns of the present post.

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DEFINING FEATURES

A useful way to discover the grammatical class of any multi-word expression is to observe the kinds of single words that it can replace in a sentence without being ungrammatical or structurally different. Thus, every day can be identified as noun-like before the verb matters because it can replace a noun like exercise (Every day matters) and adverb-like after it because it can replace an adverb like greatly (…matters every day). The change of meaning is immaterial (see 26. One Word or Two?).

Using this technique, it is easy enough to conclude that with the help of is preposition-like: it clearly acts like the preposition by (albeit with slightly different meaning) in the following:

(a) Consumer demand can be increased by advertising.

However, there is a problem here: plenty of identifiable word groups end in a preposition but are intuitively not multi-word prepositions. One less-problematic kind is illustrated by just like. This is not a different preposition from like, but just a stronger version of it – combined with a special strength-showing adverb, other possibilities being a little, quite, much and very (see 262. Adverbs that Describe a Preposition). I exclude all such combinations as multi-word prepositions.

More problematic are examples like the following:

(b) Deep pits were dug for the construction of foundations.

It would be hard to argue here that for the construction of was a multi-word preposition, even though it is replaceable by a simple one like for or under and mirrors recognised possibilities like with the help of. The more likely analysis is that the preposition for is followed by a noun (construction) whose meaning is being refined by an of phrase after it. In other words, construction is a part not of the preposition but of the following noun phrase.

How can we know this? The answer is seemingly the concept of “collocation” – the tendency of word combinations to become familiar-sounding and easy to produce automatically as a result of their frequent occurrence. Thus for the construction of does not sound to me like such a regularly-occurring fixed phrase as with the help of. I am able to make this judgement because English is my mother tongue and hence very familiar to me.

Of course recognising collocations is not easy for less experienced English users. The ability to do it usually develops automatically through extensive exposure to the language. However, this natural process may sometimes be shortened by making a focussed study, and it is this that I am aiming to assist here. There is a similarity in this respect to the Guinlist post 164. Fixed Preposition Phrases. The difference between a multi-word preposition and a fixed preposition phrase is that only the former ends with a preposition and can begin with a word that is not a preposition.

Identifying collocations, however, does not guarantee preposition discovery. This is because collocations – including multi-word prepositions – occur along a spectrum from very weak to very strong. As a result, there are some combinations that I would consider to be dubious or borderline cases. Examples are accompanied by, at the back of, in anticipation of, in time for, in the case of (see 235. Special Uses of “the”, #8), to the right of and turning to (see 186. Language in Oral Presentations, #2). Some such phrases are included below, but their selection is rather subjective.

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CLASSIFICATION

Multi-word prepositions have a useful feature for their grouping into different categories: the kind of word they begin with. Very often this is a preposition, but alternatives include adverbs, participles and other words. Using these categories, multi-word prepositions may be listed as follows.

1. Preposition First

as a result of; at odds with; at risk of; at the expense of; at the hands of; at the top of; by means of; by way of; except for; for the sake of; in accordance with; in addition to; in association with; in case of; in charge of; in comparison with; in conjunction with; in connection with; in contradiction of; in contrast to; in excess of; in favour of; in front of; in keeping with; in light of; in line with; in relation to; in respect of; in spite of; in terms of; in the absence of; in the event of; in the hope of; in the interests of; in the region of; in tune with; in the wake of; in the words of; in view of; on account of; on the basis of; on top of; out of tune with; under the auspices of; under the influence of; up to; with a view to; with regard to; with the aid (or assistance or help) of; with the aim (or intention or purpose) of; with the exception of.

In addition, there are three phrases with and: in and around, above and beyond and over and above (see 209. Fixed Phrases with “and”).

Noticeable within the above list is a fairly frequent metaphorical meaning of the central noun. For example, region inside in the region of refers not to surrounding space, but to surrounding numbers (see 95. Making Statements More Uncertain 1, #2). Other examples are underlined. Note that at the hands of implies ill treatment by the hands. For details of in view of, see 296. Tricky Word Contrasts 12, #4. For another aspect of metaphorical preposition usage, see 229. Metaphorical Prepositions.

Also noticeable, even though the list is probably incomplete, is the frequency of a starting in…, and the small number of alternatives (only as, at, by, for, on, out of, under and with). End prepositions are even less varied: overwhelmingly of, sometimes to or with.

The inclusion of the after the starting preposition is surprisingly variable. Plural odds and terms lack it, but auspices, hands and words have it. Singular countable account, case, front, line, tune and way lack it, but aim, basis, exception, expense, sake, top (after at) and wake have it, while top after on has it variably according to meaning (see 81. Tricky Word Contrasts 2, #2). A is used instead of the in as a result, though the occasionally replaces it if the result is the only possible one.

Except for is unusual in just comprising two prepositions. For its usage, see 215. Naming Exceptions. In spite of is an alternative to the single-word preposition despite, with which it is easily confused (see 133. Confusions of Similar Structures 1). For a discussion of in case of versus in the event of, see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #10.

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2. Adverb First

about to; ahead of; along with; apart from; aside from; away from; further to; instead of; next to; out of; over against; regardless of; up against; up to

Some of these (about, along, over, up) start with a word that could elsewhere be a preposition. Confirmation of their adverb status here is the absence of a noun between them and the ending preposition. They are also able to be adverbs in other contexts, for example within phrasal verbs (see 139. Phrasal Verbs) and directly after BE (see 154. Lone Prepositions after BE).

Further to is perhaps the least common of the above phrases. It often appears at the start of a letter or email to name the preceding communication on the same topic, e.g. Further to your letter of 26^th July… .

There are many other adverb-preposition combinations that are surely not multi-word prepositions, usually because the collocation is weak. For example, back in in the famous play title Look back in Anger is nothing more than an adverb plus simple preposition.

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3. Participle First

Contributing to a preposition phrase is one of various “special” uses of participles (see 320. Special Participle Uses). Notable phrases are:

according to; based on; compared to; depending on; linked to; owing to

Participles with -ing tend to make adverb-like preposition phrases; -ed ones adjective-like ones. -ing expresses active meaning, -ed indicates passive. However, the active / passive decision can be subjective – East African English, for example, prefers basing on to based on. For the difference between based on and on the basis of, see LINK: 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #3.

Compared to is of course useful for describing differences (see 216. Indicating Differences, #4). Unlike than, it accompanies adjectives and adverbs in their base rather than comparative form (…is large compared to…: see 231. Confusions of Similar Structures 3, #5). Also unlike than, it can start a sentence. Elsewhere, it suggests more:

(c) Mice are (very) large compared to fleas.

This indicates not just the comparatively large size of mice, but also that mice may not be (very) large in absolute terms, many other creatures being larger.

According to has a wider meaning than in accordance with. Both are usable in expressions like played…the rules to mean “matching” or “obeying”, but according to can additionally introduce either the name of a source being reported (see 79. Fitting Quotations into a Text and 107. The Language of Opinions), or the basis of a classification (see “Naming All of the Class Members” in 162. Writing about Classifications).

Owing to reflects a metaphorical use of the verb OWE (see 246. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 2, #3). For advice on its grammar, see 72. Causal Prepositions.

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4. Other Words First

as for; as opposed to; as regards; because of; but for; contrary to; courtesy of; due to; irrespective of; part of; prior to; relative to; subsequent to; thanks to

A starting adjective is common here, exceptions being courtesy, part and thanks (all nouns) and as, because and but (conjunctions). Every combination except irrespective of is alternatively usable as an ordinary adjective phrase.

Preposition-based adjectives only describe a noun just before them, e.g. accidents due to darkness (not *due accidents to darkness). Ordinary adjectives preceding a preposition are more flexible. For example, opposite can make either the colour opposite to white or the opposite colour to white. This distinction can be useful for recognising when adjectives do not make a multi-word preposition (see 203. Expanding an Adjective with Words after it).

For details of as regards, see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #9. On due to, owing to, courtesy of and thanks to, see 72. Causal Prepositions. On but for, see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #1. On part of, see 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #2.

220. Features of Complements

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Complements have many forms but are recognisable from certain kinds of word that always accompany them

IMPORTANCE AND VARIABILITY OF COMPLEMENTS

Complements are a key sentence component, ranking alongside subjects, objects, verbs and adverbials, and consequently receive regular mentions in this blog. They may be defined as words or phrases that, with the help of a special kind of verb, refer to the same idea as a preceding noun, sometimes giving its name or role and sometimes describing it. Consider this Shakespearian quotation:

(a) All the world’s a stage.

The complement here is the noun a stage. It is shown by the verb is to correspond to the earlier noun idea all the world. It could be viewed as either a role or a description.

What is noticeable in the various Guinlist posts that mention complements is that there is quite wide variation of form and context. It is this variation that I wish to survey here. Only by knowing it, I believe, can a full appreciation of the nature of English complements be achieved.

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COMPLEMENT VARIATIONS

The following variations seem especially important.

1. Subject versus Object Complements

In sentence (a), the noun world that the complement stage refers to is the subject of the associating verb is. As a result the complement is called a “subject” one. Subject complements can look very like verb objects, but are distinguishable because they represent or describe the same idea as the subject (note, though, that -self words after a verb, which also do this, are an exception, being usually classified as objects – see 143. Subtleties of “-self” Words). As a result, active verbs with a subject complement cannot be made passive (see 113. Verbs that cannot be Passive). For alternatives to the passive, see 46. How to Avoid “I”, “We” and “You”.

Object complements, on the other hand, follow an earlier noun that is the object of the associating verb, like this:

(b) Columbus called the first island he reached San Salvador.

Here, called is the associating verb, the phrase centred on island is its object, and San Salvador is the object complement, referring to the same thing as the object. For a full description of object complements, see 92. Verbs with an Object + “As”.

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2. Adjective versus Noun Complements

Most complements are adjective-like or noun-like. Many complement-taking verbs easily go with either kind. For example, is in (a) readily allows not just a noun like stage but also an adjective like beautiful. However, there are some verbs that tend to have one complement type much more than the other.

Among verbs that take a subject complement, APPEAR, BECOME, FEEL, LOOK, PROVE, REMAIN, SEEM and SOUND resemble BE in commonly allowing either a noun or adjective complement. Verbs preferring a noun complement include COMPRISE, CONSIST OF, EQUAL, GROW INTO, TURN INTO and MAKE (see 141. Ways of Using MAKE); while adjective-preferring verbs include COME (see 290. Ways of Using COME, #13), GO (see 176. Ways of Using “Go”, #2), GROW (= become), NUMBER (+ number) (see 184. Adjectives with Limited Mobility, “Quantity Adjectives”), SMELL, TASTE and TURN.

Verbs that allow an object complement can be classified according to their meaning into three broad groups (see 92. Verbs with an Object + “As”). In one group the complement is a name. Called in sentence (b) belongs to this group, as does refer to in the following:

(c) Scientists REFER TO bird flu as avian flu.

Other verbs with this use include ALLUDE TO…AS, DUB, LABEL, NAME, TERM and KNOW…AS (see 206. Ways of Conveying a Name). Since names are usually nouns (see 47. Article Errors with Proper Nouns), we can say that naming verbs usually have nouns as their object complement, not adjectives.

In the second verb group the object complement is a role or description. Typical verbs are CHARACTERISE … AS, DESCRIBE…AS, CRITICISE…AS and HIGHLIGHT…AS. Even verbs in the first group sometimes have a descriptive object complement instead of a name, as in …called the data a mess. Complements of verbs in this group seem equally able to be adjectives or nouns. Equal likelihood of noun and adjective complements also seems to exist with the third group, verbs of “believing or imagining” (e.g. BELIEVE, CONSIDER, IMAGINE, SEE…AS, THINK OF…AS).

Adjectives acting as an object complement are not considered to be making a noun phrase with the object, as that would make them part of the object, not a separate sentence component (see 253. Descriptive Wording after Nouns 2, #2).

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3. Other Complement Forms

Verbs with -ing are generally either noun-like – acting as “gerunds” – or adjective-like – acting as “participles” (see 71. Gerund and Participle Uses of “-ing”). Gerunds can be either a subject or object complement – we could say, for example, that someone’s work was banking, or that people called it banking.

Participles mostly seem unable to be a complement. Although they can follow BE like subject complements, this is usually as the second half of a verb in a “continuous” tense rather than as a complement – an occasional cause of confusion (see 69. How Computers Get Grammar Wrong 2). Participles are also found in object complement positions (after the object of a suitable verb, e.g. left everyone standing), but I do not consider this a complement use either (see 92. Verbs with an Object + “as”). Only participle forms that have evolved a distinct adjective character, like interesting (see 245. Adjectves with a Participle Ending), could be a complement.

Adverb expressions after a verb are not usually viewed as complements. However, many grammarians make an exception with time and place ones in complement positions, as in …will be at 6.00, …seem near to extinction and remained there. We might also include here preposition-like adverbs used by themselves after link verbs, as in is on and remained up (see 154. Lone Prepositions after BE), plus adverbial statements beginning with a conjunction like because, when or after, e.g.:

(d) Caesar’s haste was because he feared a coup.

Also notable are infinitive verb complements. They are especially likely when BE has particular subject types, such as those meaning “purpose” (e.g. The purpose/aim of… is to…: see 119. BE Before a “to” Verb). After other complement-taking verbs, such as SEEM, infinitives are “complement-like” rather than true complements (see 302. Verbs with a Partner Infinitive, #3).

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4. Complements after “As”

It is noticeable that some of the example complements above follow as and some do not. The need seems to depend on the particular verb chosen or, in the case of a few verbs like CONSIDER and NAME, on the particular meaning of the verb (see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #3 and 206. Ways of Stating a Name).

The need for as is particularly common with verbs that allow an object complement, and guidelines for identifying it are indeed the focus of 92. Verbs with an Object + “As”. However, this does not mean as is rare with verbs allowing a subject complement. The reason is that verbs allowing an object complement usually become verbs allowing a subject one when passive, and any need for as remains. Sentence (c) above, for example, can become:

(e) Bird flu is referred to (by scientists) as avian flu.

On the other hand, verbs usable only with a subject complement rarely have as. None of the verbs listed early in section 2 above do. A rare one that I can think of is STAND OUT AS. APPEAR AS in sentences like the following seems another possibility but is not:

(f) The bacteria appear as a dark spot.

I think there is no complement here because as means “in the form of” – which it does not in (e) – making it a preposition introducing an adverbial (see 53. “As”, “Like” and “Such As”).

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5. Meanings of Complement-Taking Verbs

Complement-taking verbs form a small number of broad meaning groups. This has already been shown of verbs with an object complement. Verbs allowing only a subject complement are mostly of “being”, “becoming” and “seeming”.

“Being” verbs include BE, COMPRISE, CONSIST OF, EQUAL, FEEL (+ personal sensation, e.g. feel ill), MAKE (= “correspond to”), PROVE, REMAIN, SMELL, STAY and TASTE. The idea of “being” can itself can be divided into “equating” and “classifying”. For example, after Russia is… an equating use would be …the largest country, while a classifying one would be …a large country. In the first case, the complement idea is unique to the subject, in the second, it is not. For one common use of equating BE, see 117. Restating Generalizations More Specifically.

“Becoming” means “starting to be”. It is mainly expressed by BECOME, COME, GO, GROW, GROW INTO, MAKE (= “can become”), TURN and TURN INTO. “Seeming” suggests that an observed action or state in reality is or may be different. The relevant verbs are APPEAR, FEEL (+ observation, e.g. feel incorrect), LOOK, SEEM and SOUND. They allow a choice about adding to be before their complement (see 192. When BE can be Omitted).

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6. Complement Positioning

The standard position of complements is after their partner noun and verb. However, subject complements sometimes go first, reversing positions with the subject, for such reasons as emphasis or the common English need to place long noun phrases at the end of a sentence (see 307. Word Order Variations, #2). An example is:

(g) High on the agenda was employee safety.

The underlined words are recognizable as a complement of was rather than its subject because they are an adjective phrase (describing the later subject noun employee safety), a common form of complements but not of subjects (see 283. Lesser-Known Features of Adjectives, #2).

Occasionally, a subject complement precedes a subject rather than changing places with it. Pronoun subjects seem especially likely to allow this (e.g. a disaster it was). Noun subjects following their complement sometimes have that in between (see 311. Exotic Grammar Structures 9, #2).

If a complement-taking verb is between two nouns, the first will normally be understood as the subject. Consider this:

(h) A problem was the temperature.

We understand the subject here to be a problem (so that the sentence is about it, identifying its nature), and not the temperature (which the sentence would then be about, asserting it to be problematic). Starting nouns can only be understood as complements when their context makes it logical. Placing a complement noun first in other contexts is likely to sound strange – in the Star Wars films, for example, it characterises the “alien” speech of the character Yoda.

Noun-like complements starting with that are one kind that would be especially unlikely to start a sentence, even in a suitable context. This is because their length makes a later sentence position more natural (see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “it”).

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7. Complements without a Verb

Unlike some languages, English does not normally allow sentences containing a subject and complement without a verb. However, if a non-complement verb is present elsewhere in the sentence, a complement-indicating one can sometimes be dropped. For details, see 192. When BE can be Omitted.