300. Adjective Indicators of Indirect Speech

.

Indirect speech can often be indicated with an adjective instead of a verb or noun

THE VARIABILITY OF INDIRECT SPEECH

Indirect speech rarely occupies a sentence by itself. Usually, its status as indirect speech will be indicated by an accompanying word expressing some kind of speaking or thinking (see 127. When to Use Indirect Speech).

The commonest type of such word is a verb (e.g. Experts agree …; We believe…), but there are other possibilities too. Nouns are common, reflecting the frequent ability of verbs in general to be paraphrased with a noun (see 287. Speech and Thought Nouns). Less common, but still worth knowing about, are adjectives. Here I wish to show how adjectives can indicate indirect speech and which ones are available.

.

A SPECIAL FORM OF INDIRECT SPEECH

First, however, I wish to highlight a kind of indirect speech that is rarely mentioned in standard descriptions. Consider this example of the commonly-mentioned kind:

(a) Galileo believed (that) the earth circled the sun.

Here, an indirect statement (underlined) is linked by that to a thought verb believed. Even if that was not visible in the sentence, its presence would still be understood. It is necessary because the indirect statement also contains a verb (moved), the rule being that two verbs cannot exist in the same sentence unless accompanied by a “joining” device (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). That here is a joining device of the conjunction kind (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”, #1).

Other joining devices are found with other kinds of indirect speech. Common ones are question words (whether, why, who etc.) in indirect questions, and special verb forms within the indirect speech that remove the need for any separate joining word, such as -ing after MENTION + noun (…mentions water dripping…) and to infinitives after command verbs like TELL + noun (…told everyone to…). Like that, these are all commonly-described features of indirect speech (see 279. Grammatical Differences between Citation Verbs).

Yet not all indirect speech contains a verb. Indirect statements after some speech verbs – CRITICISE, DEFINE, DISMISS and DESCRIBE, for example – have as instead of BE:

(b) Jones dismisses the project as unnecessary.

A few verbs, such as CALL, even disallow as (…calls the project unnecessary above: see 92. Verbs with an Object + “as”).

In some other cases, verb-less indirect speech follows a preposition. For example, …believed that the earth moved… in sentence (a) above could be paraphrased as …believed in the movement of the earth…. Changing that to in becomes necessary when a verb like moved is replaced by its equivalent noun movement. The preposition has to be in because that is the “typical” one after BELIEVE (see 111. Words with a Typical Preposition).

Replacing an indirect-speech verb with a noun like this, however, is probably not the primary use of prepositions before indirect speech. Instead, what they seem particularly suited to is enabling abbreviation of indirect speech down to just one of its nouns. Consider this indirect question:

(c) Many asked when the project would begin.

A possible abbreviation here would be just the noun the project. To link this with asked, the preposition about would be needed (…asked about the project). Other verbs like ASK (about) include ARGUE (about/ for/ against), ASSURE SOMEONE (of), KNOW (about), PRAY (for), SPEAK (about) (equating to SAY THAT) and WARN (about).

However, the majority of verbs before a lone indirect speech noun do not need a facilitating preposition – it is mainly speech / thought nouns and adjectives that do. Most verbs simply have the noun as their object. For example, an abbreviation of sentence (b) above would be …dismisses the project. Other verbs like DISMISS include CLARIFY, CONSIDER, CRITICISE, EXPLAIN and ILLUSTRATE.

A few verbs allow no abbreviation at all of indirect speech. Common ones are CLAIM (= assert), SAY and THINK (= believe).

.

IDENTIFYING SPEECH AND THOUGHT ADJECTIVES

Some adjectives are more easily classified than others as introducers of indirect speech. The most obvious ones imply communication in their meaning. For example, agreed (derived from the speech verb AGREE), divided and unanimous imply multiple people talking to each other about the associated idea, while insistent (derived from INSIST), unequivocal (= explicit or unambiguous) and non-committal (= avoiding definiteness) all indicate a manner of communication.

It may seem surprising that agreed and divided are included in the adjective examples above given that they are often considered to be the verb forms known as participles. However, it is quite common for many English participle forms to be used slightly differently as adjectives. For advice on recognising their adjective usage, see 245. Adjectives with a Participle Ending.

Thought adjectives are harder to recognise as introducing indirect speech because, of course, they can describe unspoken thoughts as well as spoken ones. It can help to recognise sub-categories. The most likely kind to introduce indirect speech is perhaps what I call “fact-related”: adjectives like aware, certain, convinced, dismissive and doubtful. Slightly less likely, perhaps, are ”will” adjectives, such as adamant, interested, keen and willing. Least likely are probably “emotion” adjectives, such as frustrated, happy, satisfied, surprised and upset (see 203. Expanding an Adjective with Words after it, #2).

With all thought adjectives, the absence of a speech clue within their meaning is often compensated for by an external one, such as a source reference:

(d) Chung (2021, p. 54) is certain/frustrated that handwriting will become a lost art.

The academic reference after Chung here makes it clear that a feeling was expressed in a statement of which the end of the sentence must be an indirect form.

Other examples of indirect speech introduced by an adjective are:

(e) Einstein was unsure (about) why weight changes in elevators.

(f) I am aware that change is necessary.

The indirect speech in (e) here is a reported question, while that in (f) is a non-reported statement.

.

USING SPEECH & THOUGHT ADJECTIVES

Like all adjectives, speech / thought ones usually describe a noun – typically one naming the source of the indirect speech being expressed. They cannot go directly before this noun; most follow it with a link verb like BE in between, as in sentence (d), but a few occupy an alternative adjective position (see 283. Lesser-Known Features of Adjectives, #2).

Like verbs and nouns of speech and thought, adjectives do not all link in the same way with indirect speech. The main possibilities and common adjectives associated with each are as follows.

1. With that or a Preposition

This is a property of certain (= convinced) in (d) above. To be classified as usable with that, an adjective must allow it more widely than just in sentences starting it is… (see 203. Expanding an Adjective with Words after it, “Expansion with that”).

Possible prepositions after certain are about and of (see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #2). Each may introduce either a complete indirect statement (containing an -ing verb) or an abbreviated one comprising just a noun, e.g. …about handwriting in (d).

About is the main or only possible preposition with many but not all adjectives that also allow that…. The possibilities are:

ABOUT
adamant, clear (= not confused), correct, definite, doubtful (= doubting), explicit (= plain), optimistic, perplexed, persuasive, positive (= convinced), puzzled, sceptical, sympathetic, unambiguous, unanimous, unequivocal, vociferous

ABOUT OR ANOTHER PREPOSITION
agreed (on), certain (of), confident (of), convinced (of), hopeful (of), sure (of), suspicious (of), uncompromising (on)

ANOTHER PREPOSITION
afraid (of), (un)aware (of), agreeable (to), desirous (of), insistent (on), proud (of), thankful (for)

After certain and hopeful, of and about usually express slightly different meanings. Certain of X indicates certainty that X exists, while certain about X may indicate certainty relating to some aspect of X, taking X’s existence for granted. This is the same contrast that of / about expresses after nouns like knowledge and news (see 134. Words with a Variable Preposition, #2).

After adamant and insistent (plus desperate, determined, eager, keen and willing), a future-referring that statement may contain a verb in the “subjunctive” form (see 269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #7).

Most of the above adjectives can precede indirect questions as well as statements, but still usually need their preposition, e.g. certain about why… (see 219. Wording next to Indirect Questions, #3). After doubtful and sceptical, the difference between that… and about whether… is unusually small (see 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1, #7).

.

2. Only with a Preposition

Adjectives that link in this way can again introduce indirect questions as well as statements. They rarely allow a choice of prepositions. Common ones are:

ABOUT
ambiguous, curious, eloquent (also on), helpful (also on), ignorant (also of), inquisitive, non-committal (also on), relaxed, vague

OF
accepting, appreciative, critical, demanding dismissive, indicative, questioning, suggestive, (un)supportive

TO
attracted, opposed, resigned, sympathetic

OTHER
baffled by, bewildered by, divided over, eloquent on (also about), familiar with, intent on, interested in, interesting on

Note that curious sometimes replaces about with to discover, to know, to see or similar.

.

3. With that or a to Verb

An adjective of this kind is keen:

(f) Gomez (2019, p. 5) is keen that nothing changes.

Keen can be followed by that here because the subject of the later verb changes (= nothing) is different from the subject of is (= Gomez). The infinitive form to change would also be possible in this situation, provided that is replaced by for (…keen for nothing to change).

By contrast, if the two verb subjects are the same, keen normally needs a directly-following infinitive:

(g) Gomez (2019, p. 5) is keen to keep things unchanged.

A further particular property of keen is ability to replace both that and to with the preposition on: keen on nothing changing in (f) and keen on keeping… in (g).

Other adjectives like keen (possible prepositions shown in brackets) include desperate (for), determined, eager (for), happy (with, about), impatient (for), reluctant (about) and (un)willing (see 83. Adjectives before a “to” Verb, #2).

.

4. With Just a Question Word

The normal requirement for a preposition between an adjective and an indirect question (see #1 above) disappears when the adjective follows it is:

(h) It is interesting where insects go in winter.

In sentences like this, the adjective describes the indirect speech rather than the speaker, and the question is not a reported one. For further details, see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #8.

Where a question is reported as someone else’s, a few negative adjectives allow but do not compel the preposition to be dropped before it:

(d) Einstein was unsure (about / as to) why weight changes in elevators.

Similar adjectives include mystified, pessimistic, uncertain and unclear (= uncertain), plus their positive equivalents after not. The optional preposition is always about or as to, and always becomes compulsory if the question is abbreviated or its question word is paraphrased with a noun (e.g. unsure about the reason why… above).

287. Speech and Thought Nouns

.

There are surprisingly many nouns that can replace a speech or thought verb next to indirect speech

DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE

Some speech and thought nouns indicate a way of speaking / thinking, some represent the result, and very many can mean either. The first type are relatively rare, an example being summarization. The second type are quite numerous, with such examples as advice, emphasis, praise, question, summary and view. The third type is illustrated by assertion: its uncountable use means the action of asserting, while the countable use means the resultant words (see 280. Alternative Meanings of Action Nouns).

A typical, though certainly not exclusive, way of using speech and thought nouns is alongside indirect speech (see 22. Multiple Speakers in a Text). Of course, this position is most commonly occupied by speech and thought verbs (see 150. Verb Choices with Reported Speech), and sometimes even by adjectives (see 300. Adjective Indicators of Indirect Speech). Indeed, speech and thought verbs are so frequent with indirect speech that English language courses often concentrate exclusively on them.

The use of speech and thought verbs with indirect speech certainly deserves attention, given the numerous language problems that they can cause (see 76. Tenses of Citation Verbs and 279. Grammatical Differences between Citation Verbs). Yet the use of speech and thought nouns with indirect speech is common and challenging enough to deserve some attention too. Like the verbs, they function in a variety of ways, and are not all the same in their grammatical requirements. It is these aspects that the present post is about.

.

VERB CORRESPONDENCES

A useful way to identify speech and thought nouns is to seek derivations from speech and thought verbs. Many, but not all, speech and thought verbs have a derived noun:

COMMON VERB-DERIVED SPEECH NOUNS

acceptance, acknowledgement, advice, agreement, allegation, analysis, appeal, appreciation, argument, assertion, assessment, assumption, call, citation, claim, clarification, command, comparison, complaint,  concern, conclusion, confirmation, contention, contrast, criticism, declaration, demand, denial, definition, description, demonstration, discussion, dismissal, distinction, emphasis, encouragement, enquiry, evaluation, explanation, focus, forecast, guess, identification, illustration, implication, indication, instruction, introduction, invitation, judgement, mention, note, observation, opposition, outline, perception, persuasion, plea, point, portrayal, praise, prediction, preference, presumption, promise, pronouncement, proof, proposal, query, quotation, recognition, recommendation, reference, refusal, refutation, rejection, repetition, report, request, speculation, speech, statement, suggestion, summary, support, survey, thanks, threat, warning, wording

Speech verbs with no apparent derived noun include ASK, BESEECH, BEG, HIGHLIGHT, HOLD, MAINTAIN, QUESTION, SAY, SHOW, TELL, URGE, WONDER and WRITE. To express their meaning in noun positions, they need to be in the gerund (-ing) form:

(a) Solar observations induced questioning of ancient astronomy.

.

COMMON VERB-DERIVED THOUGHT NOUNS

acceptance, appreciation, assumption, belief, concept, conception, conclusion, conviction, determination (= discovery), discovery, doubt, feeling (= belief), guess, imagination, inference, intention, judgement, knowledge, perception, realization, recognition, study, thought, understanding, view, viewpoint, wish

The borderline between “thought” and other mental experiences like emotions and urges is sometimes hazy, but hopefully these examples give some idea of what is meant. Most of them (exceptions underlined) can also refer to speech. A thought verb with no apparent derived noun is SEE (= understand), though insight is quite similar in meaning.

In addition to the above lists, there are some speech and thought nouns that have no corresponding verb:

SPEECH / THOUGHT NOUNS WITH NO CORRESPONDING VERB

attitude, awareness, faith, insight, idea, ignorance, issue, news, purpose, question, uncertainty, words

Some of these do have a related verb, but not one with the same meaning. For example, the verb QUESTION means not “ask a question” but “interrogate” or “doubt” (see 218. Tricky Word Contrasts 8, #2); IGNORE means not “be unaware” but “refuse to acknowledge”; and WORD means not “speak” but “phrase”.

.

USAGE

A place where speech/ thought nouns seem more likely than speech / thought verbs to accompany indirect speech is in sentences saying something additional to the indirect speech. Some nouns link with indirect speech in the typical way of verbs, some do not.

1. With Familiar Indirect Speech Forms

(b) Columbus was motivated by BELIEF that the world was spherical.

(c) The QUESTION of how life began is not resolved.

(d) The INSTRUCTION (for …) to reconsider is unreasonable.

Here, (b) has an indirect statement beginning with the conjunction that, (c) a question starting with how, and (d) an urging statement (“command”) involving a to verb. 

Indirect statements after a speech / thought noun cannot always start with that. This is hardly surprising, given the similar constraint on speech / thought verbs (see 279. Grammatical Differences between Citation Verbs). In most cases, that-allowing nouns correspond to that-allowing verbs, though a rare exception is criticism, its usability with that not being shared by CRITICISE (see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1, #g).

Other that nouns derived like belief from a verb include acceptance, advice, agreement, argument, claim, complaint, conclusion, criticism, denial, demonstration, feeling, guess, implication, inference, insistence, judgement, knowledge, mention, observation, perception, point, prediction, preference, proposal, recognition, recommendation, speculation, statement, suggestion, understanding and warning.

In addition, that can follow a few nouns not derived from a verb, including awareness, attitude, faith, idea, issue and words.

Verb-derived nouns that cannot have that include call, citation, comparison, contrast, definition, description, discussion, dismissal, distinction, emphasis, encouragement, enquiry, introduction, invitation, opposition, outline, persuasion, portrayal, praise, query, reference, refusal, rejection, speech, support, survey, thanks and uncertainty. Other that-rejecting nouns include purpose and question. For ways of using all these nouns, see below.

In sentences (c) and (d), an important feature is the need for a preposition before the indirect question / command. The question in (c) follows the preposition of meaning “which is” (see 160. Uses of “of”, #4); other indirect questions may follow an object-indicating of (e.g. explanation of…: see 31. Prepositions after Action Nouns 1). Exceptionally, the preposition may be a different one altogether. The main clue that a pre-question preposition is object-indicating seems to be derivation of the speech / thought noun from a verb (for numerous examples, see 219. Wording next to Indirect Questions, #2).

Nouns that can, like question in (c), introduce a familiar-type indirect question usually indicate asking, explaining or knowing, as verbs do before indirect questions. Further examples (exceptional prepositions in brackets) are clarification, discovery, enquiry (into), examination, explanation, ignorance, investigation (of/into), issue, matter, proof, recognition and study.

Before the indirect command in (d), the added preposition is for. This is the standard for with nouns that are the subject of a to (infinitive) verb (to reconsider above). However, exceptions sometimes occur, e.g. instructions to (someone) to do (something).

Nouns that can, like instruction in (d), introduce a familiar-type urging statement include advice, call, command, directive, plea and request (see the end of 239. Noun Phrases Made with a “to” Verb).

.

2. With a Preposition Statement

When a speech / thought noun cannot introduce an indirect statement with that, a preposition is likely to be the alternative:

(e)  DEFINITIONS of poverty can be controversial.

(f) The FOCUS in this chapter is on poverty.

The preposition of seems to be the normal statement-reporting alternative to that. The reason for on in (f) is that the noun focus is derived from a prepositional verb (FOCUS ON), the rule being that nouns made from such verbs keep the same preposition (see 31. Prepositions after Action Nouns 1, #1). Other nouns with an unusual preposition for this reason are commitment (to), reference (to) and speech (about). Because to is a preposition here, any following verb needs -ing (see 35. Verbs Followed by “to -ing”).

Noun-form reports like those after the prepositions above are often not fully informative. In (e), for example, poverty after definitions of… indicates that the definitions involve poverty but not what they say about it. Yet suc h reports do not have to give only partial information. Very often there will be some way of saying more. There are various possibilities. After definition(s), an addition can start with as or in terms of:

(g) Definitions of poverty in terms of relative wealth are controversial.

This reports the definitions in more detail, yet still incompletely. As enables complete reporting after definition(s).

Usually, the of…as… combination is only able to report BE statements – a typical form taken by definitions (see 286. Repeating in Different Words, #1). An example of a speech noun that would probably not report a BE statement, and hence not allow as, is discussion. The lengthy, complicated nature of discussions means that in terms of would be a more practical means than as of giving extra detail about a noun-form report.

Preposition reporting, besides being the main option with speech / thought nouns that do not allow that, is often found with nouns that do allow it:

(h) Sim’s ACCEPTANCE of the need to change is welcome.

With that, this would probably be …acceptance that things need to change….

Some that-allowing nouns have of as their preposition alternative to that, others have about, concerning or regarding, and a few can have either depending on meaning. Other nouns that, like acceptance, tend to have of include awareness, criticism, denial, mention, perception, recognition, recommendation, refusal and suggestion.

Nouns that usually have about or similar as their preposition alternative to that include advice, agreement, argument, belief (= “credence”), claim, concern, feeling, information, point and speculation.

Nouns that allow either option, but with different meanings include complaint, idea, knowledge, ignorance, news, proposal, report, statement, suggestion, thoughts, understanding and view (see 134. Words with a Variable Preposition, #2).

Occasionally, an altogether different preposition is possible or necessary after a that-allowing speech / thought noun. Insistence needs on. Emphasis allows either on or of (this perhaps being part of the reason why on is so often incorrectly added after the verb EMPHASISE – see 42. Unnecessary Prepositions). Preference and support need for, praise allows of or for, while attitude and claim need to (e.g. attitude to books, claim to the throne).

Note the difference between belief about… and belief in…: the former means “credence”, the latter “faith” (like the prepositional verb BELIEVE IN).

.

3. With a “to” Verb

Although linkage to a following to (infinitive) verb is most associated with urging nouns, as illustrated above in sentence (d), some statement ones allow it too, often as an alternative to that:

(i) Caesar’s PROMISE to maintain peace was not kept.

Here, to maintain equates to that he would maintain. Other statement nouns that allow to include claim, desire, determination, hope, pledge, proposal, threat, undertaking, vow and wish. Usually, a following to verb represents an action by the person making the statement, while that… introduces some other action (though see 281. Words with Unexpected Grammar 4, #f).

Mirroring these statement nouns, there are some urging nouns that sometimes have that instead of to. The choice seems a fairly free one (see the end of 239. Noun Phrases Made with a “to” Verb).

262. Adverbs that Describe a Preposition

.

Various adverbs can add information to a preposition phrase immediately after them

GENERAL ADVERB USAGE

The possibility of an adverb adding to a preposition meaning is hardly ever highlighted in English grammar explanations. Adverbs are typically linked with verbs, adjectives / adverbs (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much), or entire sentences (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs). Noun links are sometimes mentioned too (see 313. Adverbs Linked Closely to a Noun). Yet adverbs linked to a preposition are not only possible but common and varied. An example mentioned elsewhere in this blog is well with prepositions like above and beyond, as in well above 100 degrees (see 256. Unusual Meanings of Familiar Words, #2).

This adverb usage is actually not so surprising, given the grammatical role of prepositions. Although they differ from adjectives and adverbs, their standard need for a noun-like partner normally results in phrases with either an adjective or an adverb sentence role (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #2). Thus, in terms of preposition phrases rather than individual prepositions, adverb use with the preposition is just a variant of the familiar use with simple adjectives and adverbs. This similarity is reflected in the positioning of preposition-linked adverbs: in front just like adverbs before an ordinary adjective or adverb (e.g. easily observable).

This post lists and classifies adverbs that can expand a preposition’s meaning in English. The source is my own observations, there seeming to be very little on the topic in grammar reference books.

.

FEATURES OF ADVERB USE WITH A PREPOSITION

Two key observations are that some preposition uses cannot follow the kind of preceding adverb described above, and not every adverb before a preposition is combined with it in the relevant way.

The first of these observations, note, is about “preposition use”, not “prepositions”.  In other words, it is how and where a preposition is used, rather than what it is, that determines its combinability with an adverb. In general, most prepositions seem able to combine with an adverb in the right circumstances.

There are three main preposition uses in English: “natural”, expressing the fundamental meaning of the preposition, as in to the south; collocational, dependent on a neighbouring word, as in pleased with progress; and grammatical, dependent on a particular grammatical structure, as in shown by experience (see 111. Words with a Typical Preposition). It is the first of these uses, the “natural” one, that seems most able to be linked with an adverb in the relevant way.

One adverb use before a preposition that does not make the relevant kind of combination can be illustrated as follows:

(a) Micro-plastics are accumulating rapidly in the oceans.

Here, the adverb rapidly gives information about the preceding verb accumulating rather than the following preposition in. This is perhaps because the movement suggested by rapidly contradicts the static meaning of in. Without such a contradiction, a double meaning might arise (see 301. Structures with a Double Meaning 5, #1).

Another type of use that does not qualify can be illustrated as follows:

(b) Ships long ago would sail close to the shore.

Here, the preposition to is chosen not for its natural meaning of motion approaching somewhere, but as the collocational partner of the adverb close, enabling that word’s meaning to be made more precise by a following noun. In other words, to is adding information about close rather than close adding information about to. The meaning is that ships long ago went along the shore rather than towards it.

.

ADVERBS USABLE WITH A PREPOSITION

Adverbs that can combine with a preposition are quite limited in number. Moreover, most individual ones combine with only some prepositions: very few – apart from almost and practically – are usable whatever the preposition. The following are the main adverbs found, along with their typical prepositions.

ALL…
across, above, along, around, by (+-self), outside, over, round, under

ALMOST…
Very widely usable

CLEAN…
through

CLOSE…
after, alongside, behind, beside, by, next to

CLOSELY…
behind, with

COMPLETELY…
Same as for FULLY

DEEP…
below, in, inside, into, under, within

DIRECTLY…
Same as for FAR, plus after, alongside, opposite.

EXACTLY…
above, along, alongside, around, at, behind, below, beside, by, in front of, in line with, like, next to, on, opposite, over, to, towards, under, worth

FAR…
above, across, ahead of, around, away from, before, behind, below, beyond, from, in front of, inside, into, off, out of, outside, over, past, round, to, towards, under, within

FULLY…
Same as for FAR, plus alongside, beside, like, on, with, worth.

HIGH…
above, on, over, to

IMMEDIATELY
Same as DIRECTLY

JUST…
Same as for FAR, plus alongside, at, beside, by, like, next to, on, opposite, since, until, up to, worth

LONG
…after, before, beyond, past, since

MOSTLY/MAINLY…
Same as for FULLY

MUCH… (often after not)
above, across, ahead of, before, behind, below, beyond, in front of, in line with, like, off, out of, over, past, to, towards, under, within

NARROWLY…
ahead of, behind, past, to

PARTLY…
Same as for FULLY

PRACTICALLY…
Very widely usable

QUITE…
like, within

RATHER…
like

RIGHT…
Same as for FAR, plus alongside, at, beside, by, next to, on, opposite, through, until, up to

ROUGHLY…
alongside, at, beside, by, in, like, near, on, to, towards, until, up to, worth

SLIGHTLY…
Same as for FAR, perhaps excepting around. One other is like

SOON…
after, before

SPOT…
on

STRAIGHT…
Same as for FAR

VERY…
(un)like

WAY…
Same as for FAR, excepting around, from

WELL…
Same as for FAR, excepting from. One other is worth

WHOLLY…
Same as for FULLY

.

OBSERVATIONS

Because of the variety of the adverbs and the prepositions allowed by each, guidelines on making the right choices seem desirable in order to reduce the need to memorise. There seem to be some clues in the meanings of the adverbs and some in those of the prepositions.

1. Adverb Meanings

An obvious general meaning expressed by many of the adverbs is a greater or lesser degree of their preposition’s meaning, similar to the degrees of meaning that adverbs can also show with adjectives and other adverbs. With some prepositions a degree of distance can be shown, with others a degree of exactness. Adverbs showing the former range from close, just, narrowly and slightly for small distances, through well and much for medium ones, to deep, far, high, long and way for great ones.

Close, a straightforward opposite of far, allows surprisingly fewer prepositions. As well as alongside and by, it allows, among the numerous far prepositions that it might logically be expected to allow, just behind and beside. Note that close with any of these prepositions instead of its “typical” preposition to is a true preposition-describing adverb, not a verb-describing one like in sentence (b).

Straight usually implies a high degree of directness of movement and consequently tends to accompany only prepositions that imply movement. In the list above, although it is linked with the same prepositions as far, the link is actually more with their movement meanings than their position ones. Especially common preposition partners include from, into, out of and to(wards).

Long – closely associated with the idea of time – only accompanies certain prepositions implying a time distance: after, before, beyond, past and since (but not from, up to or until). Soon is similar, but restricted to just after and before.

Adverbs representing a degree of exactness include all, clean, completely, exactly, fully, just, mostly, partly, right, roughly, spot, very and wholly. They tend, to a greater or lesser extent, to be used with positional rather than directional prepositions. For example, all over… means “everywhere in/on” (a meaning also expressible with the less common in/on all [of]…).

Three adverbs in the above lists – spot, clean and way – are unusual in that their only adverb use is with a following preposition. This probably makes their partner prepositions harder to predict. Spot on and clean through are actually idioms: expressing a meaning that is not easily discoverable from the normal meanings of spot and clean and not allowing preposition substitution. They mean “completely” or “exactly”.

Quite before like means “fairly” rather than “wholly”. It is unusual in not being likely with this meaning before any other preposition (something also true of rather and very). Before within (e.g. quite within their rights), it means “wholly”.

.

2. Preposition Meanings

The most fundamental meaning types expressed by prepositions described by an adverb are location and movement. The location ones, indeed, are an important feature of locational description (see 295. Options in Saying Where, #3). Many prepositions can express either meaning, thus allowing a wide range of adverbs.

For example, to, which most people would associate with movement, can express position before compass nouns (the north, the south etc.: see 151. Ways of Using Compass Words) and before the left and the right. Thus, far to the right expresses a movement after dived but a position after was situated. Other adverbs that can precede to include completely, directly, exactly, fully, high, just, much, narrowly, partly, right, roughly, slightly, straight, way, well and wholly.

Prepositions indicating a higher or lower location or direction of movement – above, below, beneath, over, under – allow not just ordinary high-degree adverbs like far but also ones reflecting their location: high with above and over, deep with below, beneath and under. The possibility of deep with in, inside, into and within also reflects location: the shared idea of “buried”.

As mentioned above, prepositions that express location much more than movement tend to link with exactness adverbs. They include alongside, beside, by, in, next to, on and opposite. For more on opposite, see 261. Words with Complicated Grammar 3, #4.

Worth implies not position or movement but quantity, another concept that fits easily with degree and exactness adverbs. However, the actual ones that are usable are rather limited: exactly, fully, just, mostly, partly, roughly, well and wholly. For an extensive analysis of worth, see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #1.

Like also expresses a rather unusual preposition meaning, making its typical adverbs possibly harder to predict. The main ones are exactly, just, mainly, much, mostly, quite, rather, roughly, slightly and very (see 53. “As”, “Like” and “Such As”). The underlined ones can also precede unlike.

With has different meanings that each allow different adverbs. When it means “accompanying” or “supporting”, it allows fully, partly or wholly, but when it means “collaborating” it allows closely instead. Note that when it means “using” it allows no adverb at all because that is a “grammatical” use (see 73. Prepositions for Saying How).

Finally, a notable missing preposition from the list above is despite. I am unable to think of a single adverb apart from almost that it might be associated with. One reason might be that it cannot imply exactness or a degree of meaning in the way that most prepositions can. It may also be a purely “grammatical” preposition.

259. Multi-Word Connectors

.

Many fixed phrases can show a meaning link between two sentences

MULTI-WORD CONNECTORS IN ENGLISH

Connectors are adverb-like expressions that show how the meaning of their sentence is related to that of one normally placed before (see 18. Relations between Sentences). Common examples are therefore, however and otherwise. A typical use is:

(a) Manufacturers must invest in new equipment. Otherwise, they will lose custom.

Here, otherwise says its sentence is naming the outcome of not acting in the way described in the sentence before (invest in new equipment). In other words, it signals a kind of “opposite consequence”.

Connector meanings are often able to be expressed by a conjunction instead – e.g. or in (a) – but in one sentence rather than two (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors). The whole-sentence focus of connectors makes them especially useful for clarifying overall paragraph structure (see 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists,  167. Ways of Arguing 1 and 210. Process Descriptions).

Connectors have to be distinguished from other kinds of sentence-focussed adverb. In the following, technically starts its sentence in the same way as otherwise above, but it does not show a link with an external statement:

(b) Technically, “the” is not an adjective.

Other adverbs usable like this this include surprisingly and naturally. For an extensive list and classification, see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs.

Confusingly, there are also some expressions that sometimes act as a connector and sometimes do not. Generally is a connector when accompanying a generalisation based on preceding specific instances, but not when merely signalling that the statement after it is a general one. Sometimes can have the connector meaning of “some of these (just-mentioned) times” but also the non-connector one of “some of all possible times”.

Most grammarians and English coursebook writers include among their connector examples some multi-word expressions like for example, that is to say and as a result. This is not such a revolutionary thing to do, since multi-word prepositions and conjunctions are also recognised (see 221. Multi-Word Prepositions and 230. Multi-Word Conjunctions). A key requirement for recognising a group of words as a multi-word version of any of these word types is the typicality of their combination: it must be sufficient for the expression as a whole to be considered a standard word partnership, or “collocation”.

A slight problem with such a criterion is its subjectivity, since there are some connector-like word combinations about which people’s judgements might vary. For example, (a) above would say the same thing if otherwise was replaced by if this does not happen, but would that still be a connector? It cannot be rejected because it comprises a conjunction (if) with a subject and verb, since that is also a feature of some combinations that most analysts do accept as connectors, like that is to say (that). On the other hand, it cannot be accepted as a connector on the grounds that it has the same effect, since English has numerous non-adverbial (and therefore non-connector) expressions that do that (see 112. Synonyms of Connectors).

Despite such problems, multi-word connectors still appear to be as surprisingly numerous as multi-word prepositions and conjunctions, and hence deserving of a place in this blog. My aim here is to illustrate, explain and analyse the wide variety of phrases that are always or sometimes connectors, especially those that seem likely to appear in formal writing.

.

SURVEY OF POSSIBILITIES

Multi-word connectors do not all have the same grammatical form. The following list is organised around the major differences. Highlighted items indicate a link to a Guinlist post containing usage information.

1. Preposition Phrases

Any relevant combination beginning with a preposition falls into this group. Considering that preposition phrases are a major alternative to adverbs in general in English (see 85. Preposition Phrases and Corresponding Adverbs), it is not surprising that they are a sizeable category of multi-word connectors. Examples are:

above all, after all, after a while, after some time, after that, among these, as a conclusion, as a matter of fact, as a/(the) result, as such, at any rate, at last, at least, at once, at that moment/ point, at that time, at the same time, at this, before this, besides this, by contrast, by the way, despite that, during this process, during this time/ period, for all that, for example, for instance, for one thing, for this reason, in addition, in any case, in any event, in a similar vein, in contrast, in a similar way, in comparison, in conclusion, in consequence, in general, in other words, in particular, in reality, in short, in sum, in summary, in that case, in the end, in the event, in the first place, in the meantime, in the process, in the same way, in this respect, in time, in turn, in view of this, of course, on the contrary, on the one hand, on the other hand, on the plus side, on top of that, with that

.

2. Verbs with a Joining Device

“Joining device” is my term for any linguistic option that allows a verb to exist in a sentence with another one. It includes conjunctions, relative pronouns, relative adverbs, question words, semi-colons, participle endings and the to form of verbs (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). In the following list, joining devices are underlined:

be that as it may, following (on from) this, this is because, that is to say (that), that is why, that said, to continue, to cut a long story short, to finish, to repeat, to resume, to start with, what is more

Borderline combinations of this kind perhaps include if this does not happen and the reason is that.

.

3. Adverb-Based Phrases

Connectors in this category contain neither a preposition nor a verb but normally have an identifiable central noun or adverb:

all the while, all this time, even so, better (or worse) still, first and foremost, first of all, last but not least, last of all, later on, more accurately, more precisely, more specifically, most of all, then again, the whole time

.

4. Other

all in all, all the same, if not, if so, that is

.

OBSERVATIONS

It is obvious above that most multi-word connectors are preposition phrases. Within these, that is quite common after the preposition. In many cases, this is an alternative, the difference usually being one of historical or psychological “distance” (see 234. Adjective and Pronoun Uses of “that”).

The variety of prepositions usable with that/this raises the question of whether any preposition can form a connector with these words. I suspect that many prepositions can indeed make a connector-like link in this way, but many of the combinations would have to be ruled out as “proper” connectors because they are not common. For example, under that seems a very unlikely but still possible way of showing a meaning link between sentences. Combinations with like seem more connector-like, but perhaps should be considered borderline rather than definite connectors.

In the second category, infinitive verbs (with to) are as common, it will be seen, as that in the first. This is hardly surprising: just as this and that are the most natural means of representing a previous statement, so verbs are a natural means of naming a link with one, and the infinitive form is a very common way of fitting any kind of text-describing verb into a sentence (see the end of 183. Statements between Commas).

Another feature that infinitives share with that is the ability to make connector-like phrases that are quite novel and hence not very fixed, such as to elaborate, to say why and to give another example. Once again, the lack of fixedness of such phrases can rule them out as true connectors.

Note, finally, that some of the phrases above have a non-connector use – typically preposition-like – as well as their connector one. They include for example (illustrated in detail elsewhere in this blog in 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #4), in other words, in particular, more accurately and that is to say.

.

NOTABLE MEANINGS

The overall number of multi-word connectors makes it impractical for all of their meanings and uses to be elaborated here. However, there are some that are not considered elsewhere in this blog but perhaps merit special attention. Two – as such and more so – have a use in some regional varieties of English that is not found in Standard English.

The non-standard use of as such is as an exact equivalent of therefore. In Standard English, as such only sometimes equates to therefore. Here is a sentence where both are possible:

(c) Reptiles cannot generate much body heat of their own. As such (or Therefore), they need regular exposure to the heat of the sun.

One way to check whether as such is possible is to see whether the sentence still sounds logical with as replaced by its synonym being. This is the case in (c), but would not be if the underlined words were changed to lose heat at night. Two conditions make both as and being possible. One is that the subject of the verb in the second sentence (they) should mean the same as the subject of the verb in the first (reptiles). The other is that the first sentence should describe a state rather than action.

The non-standard use of more so is as a connector meaning moreover. In Standard English, more so is not a connector at all, but a way to express the comparative meaning of an already-mentioned adjective or manner adverb without repetition. So refers to the adjective or adverb rather as pronouns refer to a preceding noun:

(d) The weather is hot all year but (is) more so in February.

(e) Farmers work hard all year but more so at harvest time.

In (d), so refers to the earlier adjective hot, thus making more so an adjective phrase meaning “hotter”. In (e), so repeats the meaning of the earlier adverb hard, thus making more so an adverb phrase meaning “harder”.

Another slightly tricky connector is on the other hand. Sometimes it follows a statement prefaced by on the one hand (with the before one) and sometimes it does not. The first use names two opposing features of a single person or thing, separated by a comma, semi-colon or full stop:

(f) On the one hand, everyone in the village is friendly; on the other (hand) they always carry a gun.

Such descriptions are usually objective, without implicit judgement. More significance can be given to the second half by removing the two linking expressions and placing a simple but in the middle (see 51. Making Concessions with “May”).

On the other hand by itself, however, has a wider contrastive use, indicating a simple difference between two separate people or things (see the end of 216. Indicating Differences). This use is often confused with that of on the contrary (see 20. Problem Connectors, #1).

252. Descriptive Wording after Nouns 1

.

A noun can be described by various types of wording placed after it

DEFINITION AND BASIC STRUCTURE OF NOUN PHRASES

Words next to a noun are sometimes closely combined with it into what most grammarians call a “noun phrase”. One way of distinguishing such phrase-making words from other words near a noun is by seeing whether they and the noun are replaceable by a lone noun without changing the overall structure of their sentence. Consider this:

(a) Strong demand for scarce commodities keeps their price high.

The underlined words here are recognisable as a noun phrase because they could all be replaced as the subject of the sentence by just the noun demand.

Other clues are used too. For example, an adjective (like strong) positioned immediately before a noun that it is describing (demand) is almost certain to be making a noun phrase with it, and so is a preposition phrase (like for scarce commodities) if it is positioned immediately after a subject noun with no comma in between. On the other hand, a verb agreeing with a noun immediately before it is not combining with it into a noun phrase: it is instead all or part of a separate “verb phrase”.

Different kinds of expression combine with the central noun in a noun phrase in different ways. Apart from being typically before or after the noun, each kind has a normal position there relative to other kinds. For example, if there is an article – the or a(n) – it goes before both the noun and any other describing words. This variety means the grammar of English noun phrases is actually quite extensive – more than could be covered in a single post. As the above title suggests, the aim here (and in the next post too) is to survey only what is possible after a central noun – technically called “noun postmodification”.

My reason for choosing this topic is a belief that it can help noun phrases to be recognised, thus assisting both reading comprehension (see 15. Reading Obstacles 8) and grammatically accurate writing. Many of the points are also made elsewhere in this blog, but having them all together here seems useful. For a similar discussion of adjective phrases, see 203. Expanding an Adjective with Words after it.

.

TYPES OF NOUN POSTMODIFIER

1. Infinitive Verbs

Placing an infinitive (to verb) after a noun only sometimes creates a noun phrase (see 239. Nouns Combined with a “to” Verb.). There are three common phrase types. One that can involve practically any noun indicates something that can or should or must be done to what the noun represents. Examples are time to spare, water to drink, nothing to see and work to do.

It will be seen that the noun is like the object of the verb – it receives rather than performs the action – yet the verb is active rather than passive. In some cases, however, a passive infinitive is actually possible as well, usually to overcome a double meaning or to express a special non-passive meaning (see, for example, the discussion of nothing to be seen in 246. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 2, #1).

Secondly, some nouns can be the subject rather than object of the infinitive in order to indicate something they can do, as in machines to dig or stories to enthral. Unsurprisingly, this use always requires infinitives in the active form.

Thirdly, some nouns can have an active or passive infinitive without relating to it in either of the above two ways: the infinitive just specifies more precisely what the noun is referring to, as in a need to be seen. Most nouns can combine with some kind of specifying verb after them, but often this will need a form other than the infinitive, often -ing after a preposition as in opposition to smoking and love of learning. Other infinitive-taking nouns include ability, determination, advice and request.

It is common for there to be no comma before a noun-describing infinitive, but not compulsory. For a description of the comma use, see 289. Exotic Grammar Structures 8, #3. 

.

2. Prepositions

A preposition and its following noun-like partner is only sometimes part of a noun phrase. In its other common role, it is like an independent adverb. This is the case, for example, if it directly follows a full stop or verb (see 53. “As”, “Like” and “Such As”), or even sometimes a noun that is the object of a verb (see 124. Structures with a Double Meaning 1, #2). Within noun phrases, a preposition and its partner go after the central noun, never before, describing it in an adjective-like way.

The choice of preposition within adjective-like preposition phrases is dictated sometimes by the noun before it, sometimes by the one after, and sometimes because its own typical meaning needs to be expressed.

PREPOSITIONS DETERMINED BY THE NOUN BEFORE

In the phrase opposition to smoking, to is necessitated by opposition: it is a typical preposition after this word, not expressing the standard movement meaning of to but marking its following noun as the target of opposition.

Here are some other prepositions that are sometimes closely linked to a preceding noun just as to is:

…FOR
demand, desire, enthusiasm, fondness, hope, instructions, liking, payment, reason, responsibility, search, substitute, taste, yearning, wish

…OF
advantage, benefit, certainty, danger, difficulty, importance, kind, likelihood, necessity, news, possibility, problem, risk, value (For more, see 78. Infinitive versus Preposition after Nouns and 160. Uses of “of”)

.…IN
interest, inclusion, involvement, participation

…ON

dependence, effect, emphasis, feedback, focus, impact, limit, reliance

…TO
alternative, answer, applicability, clue, contribution, correspondence, equivalence, exception, follow-up, harm, immunity, introduction, the key, kindness, marriage, objection, opposition, obstacle, preliminary, reaction, response, similarity, solution, superiority (care is needed with these not to have a following infinitive verb instead of an -ing one: see 35. Words Followed by “to -ing”)

…WITH
agreement, association, collaboration, compliance, connection, familiarity, fascination, happiness, partnership, success

PREPOSITIONS DETERMINED BY THE NOUN AFTER

Consider the following:

(b) Introductions of different kinds are possible.

This means introductions vary in their form. The of is a preposition closely linked to kinds, the second noun. The typical preposition after introductions, showing what is introduced, is to.

This example does not mean, however, that later nouns with a typical preposition always have priority over preceding ones: the preposition of either noun can be preferred over that of the other, depending on the desired meaning. It would be perfectly possible in (b) to change of into to if we wanted to mention different kinds as the content of introductions rather than a characteristic of them. We could even have both an of phrase and a to one together, the former usually first.

Other nouns that, like kind, have a typical preceding preposition include way (after in), screen (after on) and this moment (after at). For many more, see the end of 111. Words with a Typical Preposition. A rare example of a noun that expresses different meanings with different typical prepositions before it is scene (see 317. Tricky Word Contrasts 13, #6).

PREPOSITIONS CHOSEN FOR THEIR OWN MEANING 

This type of postmodifying preposition is much less specific to either of its associated nouns:

(c) Employment in the North is higher than in the South.

Here, in has a major kind of inherent preposition meaning: geographical. Numerous other prepositions have it too and are grammatical alternatives, such as across, beyond or near (see 151. Ways of Using Compass Words). Other common inherent meaning types include time (at, in, for etc.), function (for), means (by) and instrument (with, in).

I also include in this category what I call “object” and “subject” prepositions. These are sometimes used after an “action” noun to show that their following noun would have been either an object or a subject if the action noun had been a verb. The typical object preposition is of (see 31. Prepositions after Action Nouns 1); typical subject prepositions are by or of (see 49. Prepositions after Action Nouns 2), or occasionally from (see 246. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 2, #4).

A standard action noun is introduction. As noted earlier, it is “typically” followed by to. However, it could also be followed by of (+ object) or by (+ subject). This is not contradictory: introduction has two different meanings, each with a different preposition need. The one with of or by refers to the action of introducing, and requires introduction to be uncountable; the one with to refers to a more concrete result of the action, where introduction is countable (see 14. Action Outcomes).

.

3. Relative Clauses

Relative clauses are nearly always noun postmodifiers (for a rare exception, see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses, #2). They start with a special kind of word and contain a verb in an ordinary tense form, along with its subject. In the best-known type, the special word is either a pronoun (who, which etc.) or an adjective before a noun (whose). Some relative clauses, however, start with an adverb (when, where, why):

(d) Note the exact moment when the colour change occurs.

This use of when is a relative adverb rather than a conjunction because it is introducing information about the noun moment rather than the verb note. When after a noun is not always a relative – sometimes it is the question word (an “interrogative” adverb), introducing an indirect question – but it is not interrogative here because moment does not express any kind of asking, explaining or knowing (see 285. Complexities of Question Words, #3). Its status as a relative adverb is further indicated by its ability to be replaced by a preposition + relative pronoun (at which above: see the final section of 185. Noun Synonyms of Question Words).

The noun that relative clauses postmodify is usually just before them, but if a prepositional postmodifier is also present, e.g. on the screen added to (d) above, that would precede the relative clause. This can cause two types of reading error: misinterpreting the relative pronoun (see 28. Pronoun Errors, #3) and failing to recognise the extent of the noun phrase (see 2. Interrupted Structures).

An important further feature of relative clauses is that they sometimes need to be separated from the noun they postmodify by a comma (partnered by a later comma or full stop), depending on the noun’s meaning (see 34. Relative Pronouns and Commas). However, such punctuation makes no difference to the fact that the relative clause is part of a noun phrase centred on a noun before it.

.

4. Other Possibilities

Other common noun postmodifiers are participles, adjectives and other nouns. They can be read about in the post after this (253. Descriptive Wording after Nouns 2).

229. Metaphorical Prepositions

.

Most prepositions have at least one metaphorical extension of their familiar basic meaning

METAPHORICAL MEANING IN ENGLISH

Meaning called metaphorical (or “figurative”) is able to be expressed by many English expressions as an alternative to an older, more basic meaning from which it has developed. This development usually occurs as a result of language users gradually recognising that some abstract part of a basic meaning also exists in other things. For example, the metaphorical meaning of root (as in the root of the problem) is “cause” because that idea is also present in the same word’s basic meaning of “underground plant root”, the origin of plant growth.

Metaphorical meaning can exist in words, phrases and even sentences (for example proverbs). For an extensive list of phrase-based examples, see 241. Some Common Figurative Phrases. Readers whose vocabulary knowledge is still fairly restricted are likely to have a particular problem with metaphorical meaning, since they will often know only a basic meaning and will not always recognise when its corresponding metaphorical one is being used instead (see 7. Reading Obstacles 4).

Words with metaphorical meaning tend to belong to the four largest word classes: verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs. There are numerous examples in the above-mentioned reading post, as well as elsewhere within this blog in posts like 137. Words that Reflect English Culture and 278. Colours.

However, even prepositions sometimes have a metaphorical meaning, usually different from the one they acquire when they become adverbs (see 154. Lone Prepositions after BE). These meanings are often much less well known than the familiar ones, but this should not be a surprise when so many small words in English have the ability to be used in an unfamiliar way (see 256. Unusual Meanings of Familiar Words).

.

METAPHORICAL MEANING AND PREPOSITION USE

The metaphorical meanings that I wish to discuss here are associated with a particular use of prepositions. There are three main preposition uses: as independent words, as part of a grammatical structure, and in collocations especially with a verb, noun or adjective.

Prepositions as independent words tend to be the first kind taught in English language courses. Many have as their fundamental meaning a position or direction in space or time (on the ground, into town, after breakfast), a feature reflected in the very name “preposition”. However, there are plenty that have a different fundamental meaning, including despite, worth and most multi-word prepositions, such as according to and in terms of (see 221. Multi-Word Prepositions).

The key feature of prepositions as independent words is that they are not determined by the choice of one or more neighbouring words: their own meaning is the main reason for their choice, and they can usually be replaced by plenty of other prepositions (to express different meanings) without making the sentence structurally different or ungrammatical. For example, in before the house has such obvious alternatives as by, under, above, beyond, through and out of. Despite this independence, however, these prepositions are like all others in needing to go, along with their partner noun, in specific parts of their sentence (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #2).

By contrast, the other two preposition uses are much more dictated by the choice of neighbouring words. Grammatical prepositions are needed in particular grammatical constructions – by after passive verbs for example. Collocational prepositions depend on the choice of individual words. For example the adjective prone usually needs to after it, while the verb cope needs a following with before any object noun. For fuller details of these categories, along with additional examples, see 111. Words with a Typical Preposition.

Metaphorical preposition meanings seem to be especially possessed by prepositions in the first of the three categories. They may be illustrated with the preposition under, which can mean not just “physically covered by” but also “hierarchically supervised by”, as when we say that employees work under a manager. I am not saying that metaphorical meanings are absent from the other categories: by after passive verbs and to after prone may each be metaphorically linked somehow with their independent meanings “next to” and “in the direction of”. However, metaphorical meanings in the first category seem particularly striking and common.

.

PREPOSITIONS WITH A METAPHORICAL MEANING

The following uses are notable, though they are probably nowhere near all of the possibilities. Some also feature in 164. Fixed Prepositional Phrases, where they are more collocational.

ABOVE: (a) more important than (above all, above their own interests);  (b) not tempted by (+ immoral action) (above corruption, above exploiting the poor).

AFTER: (a) trying to get (after some food, after a good time, after more money);  (b) honouring through imitation (named after the founder, a song after Bob Dylan).

AROUND: approximately (+ quantity) (around 100 people, around 16.00 hours). See 95. Making Statements More Uncertain 1, #2.

BEHIND: (a) invisibly causing (people behind a crime, motives behind a behaviour, a theory behind a policy: see 306. Ways of Giving a Reason, #3);  (b) failing to match (behind schedule, behind the times, behind the leading team);  (c) supporting (+ person, idea or action) (behind a speaker, behind a proposal, behind a new start).

BELOW: less than (below par, below expectation, below normal, below the limit).

BENEATH: (a) hidden by (beneath a facial expression, beneath kind words);  (b) considered unworthy by (+ person) (beneath the manager – describing, for example, economy class travel).

BETWEEN: shared by or involving two people/things (divided between…, a disagreement between…).

BEYOND: (a) outside or disallowing (beyond doubt, beyond redemption, beyond reproach, beyond repair);  (b) better than (beyond expectation, beyond requirements).

OFF: (a) temporarily breaking the routine of (off duty, off food, off travelling);  (b) below the normal level (off one’s best, off colour).

ON: (a) dealing with (on a case, on a problem, on business);  (b) conveying information through (+ medium) (on TV, on the phone, on a map, on film, on a screen: see the end of 111. Words with a Typical Preposition).

ONTO: investigating after recent discovery (onto a disease source, onto criminal activity).

ON TOP OF: (a) successfully managing (+ demanding task or problem) (on top of one’s job, on top of life’s trials);  (b) in addition to (humiliation on top of defeat: see 81. Tricky Word Contrasts 2, #2).

OUT OF: (a) no longer occupying (+ correct place) (out of position, out of alignment, out of bounds, out of sorts, out of touch);  (b) caused by (+ emotion or knowledge state) (out of gratitude, out of ignorance: see 72. Causal Prepositions).

OVER: (a) more than (+ amount) (over six hours, over 1000 people, over the limit);  (b) caused by or concerning (+ source of argument) (arguing over money, disputes over procedures);  (c) recovered from (+ major event) (over the worst, over their illness, over a holiday);  (d) throughout (+ time period) (over a lifetime, over the course of many years).

THROUGH: using or with the help of (+ person/s) (through a friend, through local representatives).

UNDER: (a) hierarchically supervised by (under the command of…, under a manager);  (b) happening during the rule of (under the Republicans, under the … Dynasty);  (c) receiving/suffering (under pressure, under attack, under an illusion, under consideration, under the influence of …);  (d) according to (+ written rules) (under an agreement, under the regulations).

WITH (starting a sentence): because of (+ noun + describing word/s) (With the problem solved,… , With everyone in agreement,…: see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #7.

In addition to these single prepositions, there are some multi-word ones with a clearly metaphorical use. In tune with can refer not just to musical appropriacy (violins in tune with cellos) but also to many other kinds (decisions in tune with a policy, rules in tune with a culture). In line with can indicate a correspondence of not just one object or position with another but also of a behaviour or belief with a law, policy or expectation.

In light of means “helped by light from”, but is almost exclusively metaphorical (e.g. in light of events): to be non-metaphorical one would probably say in/by the light of instead (see 235. Special Uses of “the”, #8). Similarly, in the wake of rarely has its basic meaning of “in the white water behind (a ship)”, much more typically just meaning “after”; and owing to expresses not debt but a reason (see 246. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 2, #3).

Some of the above words retain a metaphorical use – sometimes the same one, sometimes different – when they are used alone, without a partner noun. For example, we can say that food is off, meaning that it has gone bad. In such cases the words are probably adverbs rather than prepositions. For a full discussion, see 154. Lone Prepositions after BE.

225. Simultaneous Occurrence

.

English has numerous ways of associating separate events & situations with the same time

SIMULTANEITY IN ENGLISH

Saying that an action or state is simultaneous with another one, rather than earlier or later, is a common need in professional writing (see, for example, 210. Process Descriptions). Of course, some advice about it is usually provided by elementary language courses. However, like numerous other basic meanings, it can be expressed in English in many more ways than just those described at elementary level.

I wish here to explore this variety in detail. My aim is not just to unearth vocabulary and grammar that might be new to at least some readers, but also to provide ideas for more effective paraphrasing and more sophisticated general writing.

.

TYPES OF SIMULTANEITY

It is possible for a simultaneity statement to mention more than two actions and/or states, but for simplicity mentions of only two will be considered here. These might be two actions, two states, or an action and a state. They might have equal duration, starting and ending together, or one longer than the other:

(a) (ACTION-ACTION) The war ended when the clock struck one.

(b) (STATE-STATE) Snow covers the ground. Many trees have no leaves.

(c) (STATE-ACTION) Snow lay on the ground. A lone wolf howled.

All of these can reverse their order. For more examples of state verbs, see 66. Types of Passive Verb Meaning.

There are two types of action: brief, like ended and struck in (a), and extended. Extension may be through repetition, e.g. BREATHE, HAMMER, TICK and TYPE, or just through taking a long time, e.g. BUILD and GROW. Most verb actions can alternate between brief and extended. For example, ends can be extended as well as brief, and howls can be multiple as well as single. Even the action of verbs like GROW, which most would consider extended, can become brief if compared to a long time period.

.

WAYS OF SHOWING SIMULTANEITY

Simultaneity does not always need special language to be understood. It usually seems to be recognizable without it if at least one of two closely-linked verbs inherently represents a state or extended action. This is the case, for example, in sentences (b) and (c) above, which respectively have the clear state-describing verbs covers and lay. Simultaneity is understood regardless of whether or not the other verb in these sentences inherently describes a state, regardless of which verb is mentioned first, and regardless of the presence or absence of any special simultaneity language.

The need for simultaneity language arises when two closely-linked verbs either definitely or possibly represent two brief actions. This is because such verbs without this language represent a sequence rather than simultaneity. In sentence (a), both ended and struck definitely represent brief actions, and when is added to show their simultaneity. In the following, the absence of a context causes uncertainty about whether blew represents a brief or extended action, leading to uncertainty about simultaneity and hence a need for simultaneity language:

(d) The wind blew. The clock struck one.

Simultaneity language includes the following.

1. Continuous Verb Tenses

The BE -ing verb form typically indicates states and extended actions. This means it cannot show simultaneity of two brief actions like those in sentence (a). I would argue that it is also not the main simultaneity indicator with verbs that inherently represent a state or extended action, like covers in (b). This is because, as mentioned above, they already indicate simultaneity through their very meaning. They can often be put into a continuous tense – is covering in (b) – but this tense would just highlight or emphasise the simultaneity.

Note, though, that this use of continuous tenses is not always an option: have in (b), for example, could not become *are having because HAVE meaning “possess” is one of those verbs that rarely allows a continuous tense anywhere.

Where continuous tenses are useful for showing simultaneity is with verbs like HOWL and BLOW when absence of simultaneity language would leave their meaning unclear. Thus, replacing blew in (d) with was blowing would make it clear that the two sentences were expressing simultaneous rather than successive events.

.

2. Conjunctions

In sentence (a), the added simultaneity-showing word when is a conjunction. It is hardly surprising that simultaneity indicators include conjunctions, given the association of both with verb pairs.

When can show simultaneity when positioned either before or between the two verbs that it links. In the latter case, it sometimes creates a double meaning (see 301. Structures with a Double Meaning 5, #6).

A problem with using when to mark two brief actions as simultaneous, as in (a), is that it can also mark them as a sequence where it means “after” (see 171. Aspects of the Past Perfect Tense):

(e) Prices typically rise when demand increases.

Fortunately, the context or logical reasoning usually ensures that the correct meaning of when is understood. Moreover, the “after” meaning can be made clearer by changing the tense of the verb after when to one with HAVE – has increased in (e) – and/or replacing when with after.

When can alternatively combine with an extended action or a state to show simultaneity:

(f) When Hannibal crossed the Alps, his elephants died.

Here, crossed is an extended action during which the brief one died occurs. When could also occupy the middle of the sentence, becoming associated with died (though probably with crossed changed to was crossing). In the following example, when shows simultaneity of an extended action and an equally long state. One could precede, or even replace, when with the whole time for emphasis:

(g) When Hannibal was crossing the Alps, he wanted to surprise Rome.

Other major simultaneity conjunctions are while and as. Their following verb always expresses a state or extended action. Either could replace when at the start of (f) and (g), though in (g) the meaning would change, giving the understanding that Hannibal’s desire to surprise Rome existed only during his Alps journey – not before or after. In other words, while and as events limit the time taken by the main action or event in their sentence (wanted above) to their own duration, whereas when events do not. While means “when and only when”.

As resembles while in not being usable with a brief action or one lasting longer than the action or state of the main sentence verb. However, its verb can only represent an extended action – not a state. Consider these:

(h) As vocabulary expands, conversation becomes easier.

(i) The young ones lay around their mother as she slept.

In both cases, the as action passes through time in parallel with the main action or state. There is also a suggestion of a close link – often causal – with it: conversation is facilitated by the expansion of vocabulary; the resting of the young ones is a response to the sleeping of their mother. I take slept to be more an action than a state because the latter is more clearly expressed with the adjective expression was asleep (see 66. Types of Passive Verb Meaning) – and was asleep requires while, not as.

For another use of when in this blog, see 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #4. For other uses of as, see 53. “As”, “Like” and “Such As”,  92. Complement-Showing “As”,  104. Naming Data Sources with “As” and 183. Statements between Commas.

.

3. Connectors/Adverbs

The meanings of simultaneity conjunctions are equally expressible with adverb-like expressions acting as connectors, which require the two verbs to be in separate sentences (the connector in the second) so that they have equal focus (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors). There are numerous simultaneity connectors, reflecting the variety of simultaneity types identified above. Most are phrasal (see 259. Multi-Word Connectors):

BRIEF-BRIEF: at the same time, at that moment, simultaneously

EXTENDED-EXTENDED: all along, all the while, at the same time, concurrently, during this time, in the meantime, meanwhile, simultaneously, then, the whole (of the) time, throughout (this time) (see 258. Saying How Long Something Lasts, #1 and #4).

Note how then indicates later time with brief events, and a simultaneous one otherwise (see 282. Features of History Writing, #8).

EXTENDED-BRIEF: during this time / period, at one (or some) point, in the process

BRIEF-EXTENDED: at that moment, at this time, then, this is (or was) while/during…

The following illustrate these latter two categories:

(j) (EXTENDED-BRIEF) The Great Depression lasted 10 years. At one point, US unemployment reached 25%.

(k) (BRIEF-EXTENDED) A sudden change occurred. At that moment, the liquid was boiling.

Neither of these, however, allows in the process, which needs both verbs to have the same subject:

(l) The Great Depression lasted about 10 years. In the process, it raised US unemployment to 25%.

.

4. Prepositions

Prepositions, like conjunctions, accompany an event or situation that is not the focus of their sentence (see 37. Subordination). In addition, they need it expressed with a noun, not a verb:

(m) A sudden change occurred during the boil.

If the event or situation after a simultaneity preposition was the focus of the previous sentence, its repetition with the preposition is a kind of connector synonym.

Various prepositions can express simultaneity. Different ones are necessary according to whether they introduce a brief (B) or extended (E) event / situation, and also which of these possibilities the sentence’s verb expresses. The main options are:

B (verb = B): at the time of, alongside, along with

B (verb = E): with

E (verb = B): during, in

E (verb = E): during, in, alongside, throughout, with

A simultaneity-showing with phrase usually goes at the end of its sentence (see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures, #7), as in this paraphrase of sentence (j):

(n) The Great Depression lasted 10 years, with US unemployment peaking at 25%.

A with phrase expressing an extended simultaneous period here could be …with people suffering greatly.

.

5. Verbs

English conjunction meanings can surprisingly often be expressed with a verb instead. Sometimes the verb is a conjunction synonym, with a subject and object corresponding to the partner verbs of the conjunction (see 131. Uses of “Action” Nouns, #1), e.g.:

(o) Hannibal’s passage across the Alps COINCIDED WITH the death of his elephants.

(p) The Great Depression SAW 25% unemployment to the USA.

Other verbs like this include ACCOMPANY, CO-OCCUR WITH, INVOLVE, PARALLEL and BE SIMULTANEOUS / CONCURRENT WITH.

The participle form of ordinary verbs (excepting brief-action ones) also expresses simultaneity:

(q) The disease spread widely, inflicting much suffering.

For a full overview, see 267. Participles and Gerunds with “Having”.

.

6. Add-On Adjective Phrases

An alternative to the above participle use is an adjective + extra words, e.g. deadly to all in (q) (see 159. Exotic Grammar Structures 2, #3).

221. Multi-Word Prepositions

.

English has numerous word combinations that work together as a preposition

GENERAL NATURE AND IMPORTANCE

Prepositions, like other established word classes (“parts of speech”), tend to be thought of as single words but can also be multi-word (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #3). Prepositions of two, three or even more words can be identified, though the last word will always be a familiar shorter preposition like to. Common examples are along with, according to, in front of and on the basis of. Some grammarians call one-word prepositions “simple” and multi-word ones “complex”.

Multi-word prepositions resemble multi-word conjunctions and multi-word connectors in being surprisingly numerous. This means that studying them is likely to be a useful language-learning exercise. There are various aspects that can be considered: what they are, what they comprise and what they mean. Identifying and classifying these are the main concerns of the present post.

.

DEFINING FEATURES

A useful way to discover the grammatical class of any multi-word expression is to observe the kinds of single words that it can replace in a sentence without being ungrammatical or structurally different. Thus, every day can be identified as noun-like before the verb matters because it can replace a noun like exercise (Every day matters) and adverb-like after it because it can replace an adverb like greatly (…matters every day). The change of meaning is immaterial (see 26. One Word or Two?).

Using this technique, it is easy enough to conclude that with the help of is preposition-like: it clearly acts like the preposition by (albeit with slightly different meaning) in the following:

(a) Consumer demand can be increased by advertising.

However, there is a problem here: plenty of identifiable word groups end in a preposition but are intuitively not multi-word prepositions. One less-problematic kind is illustrated by just like. This is not a different preposition from like, but just a stronger version of it – combined with a special strength-showing adverb, other possibilities being a little, quite, much and very (see 262. Adverbs that Describe a Preposition). I exclude all such combinations as multi-word prepositions.

More problematic are examples like the following:

(b) Deep pits were dug for the construction of foundations.

It would be hard to argue here that for the construction of was a multi-word preposition, even though it is replaceable by a simple one like for or under and mirrors recognised possibilities like with the help of. The more likely analysis is that the preposition for is followed by a noun (construction) whose meaning is being refined by an of phrase after it. In other words, construction is a part not of the preposition but of the following noun phrase.

How can we know this? The answer is seemingly the concept of “collocation” – the tendency of word combinations to become familiar-sounding and easy to produce automatically as a result of their frequent occurrence. Thus for the construction of does not sound to me like such a regularly-occurring fixed phrase as with the help of. I am able to make this judgement because English is my mother tongue and hence very familiar to me.

Of course recognising collocations is not easy for less experienced English users. The ability to do it usually develops automatically through extensive exposure to the language. However, this natural process may sometimes be shortened by making a focussed study, and it is this that I am aiming to assist here. There is a similarity in this respect to the Guinlist post 164. Fixed Preposition Phrases. The difference between a multi-word preposition and a fixed preposition phrase is that only the former ends with a preposition and can begin with a word that is not a preposition.

Identifying collocations, however, does not guarantee preposition discovery. This is because collocations – including multi-word prepositions – occur along a spectrum from very weak to very strong. As a result, there are some combinations that I would consider to be dubious or borderline cases. Examples are accompanied by, at the back of, in anticipation of, in time for, in the case of (see 235. Special Uses of “the”, #8), to the right of and turning to (see 186. Language in Oral Presentations, #2). Some such phrases are included below, but their selection is rather subjective.

.

CLASSIFICATION

Multi-word prepositions have a useful feature for their grouping into different categories: the kind of word they begin with. Very often this is a preposition, but alternatives include adverbs, participles and other words. Using these categories, multi-word prepositions may be listed as follows.

1. Preposition First

as a result of; at odds with; at risk of; at the expense of; at the hands of; at the top of; by means of; by way of; except for; for the sake of; in accordance with; in addition to; in association with; in case of; in charge of; in comparison with; in conjunction with; in connection with; in contradiction of; in contrast to; in excess of; in favour of; in front of; in keeping with; in light of; in line with; in relation to; in respect of; in spite of; in terms of; in the absence of; in the event of; in the hope of; in the interests of; in the region of; in tune with; in the wake of; in the words of; in view of; on account of; on the basis of; on top of; out of tune with; under the auspices of; under the influence of; up to; with a view to; with regard to; with the aid (or assistance or help) of; with the aim (or intention or purpose) of; with the exception of.

In addition, there are three phrases with and: in and around, above and beyond and over and above (see 209. Fixed Phrases with “and”).

Noticeable within the above list is a fairly frequent metaphorical meaning of the central noun. For example, region inside in the region of refers not to surrounding space, but to surrounding numbers (see 95. Making Statements More Uncertain 1, #2). Other examples are underlined. Note that at the hands of implies ill treatment by the hands. For details of in view of, see 296. Tricky Word Contrasts 12, #4. For another aspect of metaphorical preposition usage, see 229. Metaphorical Prepositions.

Also noticeable, even though the list is probably incomplete, is the frequency of a starting in…, and the small number of alternatives (only as, at, by, for, on, out of, under and with). End prepositions are even less varied: overwhelmingly of, sometimes to or with.

The inclusion of the after the starting preposition is surprisingly variable. Plural odds and terms lack it, but auspices, hands and words have it. Singular countable account, case, front, line, tune and way lack it, but aim, basis, exception, expense, sake, top (after at) and wake have it, while top after on has it variably according to meaning (see 81. Tricky Word Contrasts 2, #2). A is used instead of the in as a result, though the occasionally replaces it if the result is the only possible one.

Except for is unusual in just comprising two prepositions. For its usage, see 215. Naming Exceptions. In spite of is an alternative to the single-word preposition despite, with which it is easily confused (see 133. Confusions of Similar Structures 1). For a discussion of in case of versus in the event of, see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #10.

.

2. Adverb First

about to; ahead of; along with; apart from; aside from; away from; further to; instead of; next to; out of; over against; regardless of; up against; up to

Some of these (about, along, over, up) start with a word that could elsewhere be a preposition. Confirmation of their adverb status here is the absence of a noun between them and the ending preposition. They are also able to be adverbs in other contexts, for example within phrasal verbs (see 139. Phrasal Verbs) and directly after BE (see 154. Lone Prepositions after BE).

Further to is perhaps the least common of the above phrases. It often appears at the start of a letter or email to name the preceding communication on the same topic, e.g. Further to your letter of 26^th July… .

There are many other adverb-preposition combinations that are surely not multi-word prepositions, usually because the collocation is weak. For example, back in in the famous play title Look back in Anger is nothing more than an adverb plus simple preposition.

.

3. Participle First

Contributing to a preposition phrase is one of various “special” uses of participles (see 320. Special Participle Uses). Notable phrases are:

according to; based on; compared to; depending on; linked to; owing to

Participles with -ing tend to make adverb-like preposition phrases; -ed ones adjective-like ones. -ing expresses active meaning, -ed indicates passive. However, the active / passive decision can be subjective – East African English, for example, prefers basing on to based on. For the difference between based on and on the basis of, see LINK: 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #3.

Compared to is of course useful for describing differences (see 216. Indicating Differences, #4). Unlike than, it accompanies adjectives and adverbs in their base rather than comparative form (…is large compared to…: see 231. Confusions of Similar Structures 3, #5). Also unlike than, it can start a sentence. Elsewhere, it suggests more:

(c) Mice are (very) large compared to fleas.

This indicates not just the comparatively large size of mice, but also that mice may not be (very) large in absolute terms, many other creatures being larger.

According to has a wider meaning than in accordance with. Both are usable in expressions like played…the rules to mean “matching” or “obeying”, but according to can additionally introduce either the name of a source being reported (see 79. Fitting Quotations into a Text and 107. The Language of Opinions), or the basis of a classification (see “Naming All of the Class Members” in 162. Writing about Classifications).

Owing to reflects a metaphorical use of the verb OWE (see 246. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 2, #3). For advice on its grammar, see 72. Causal Prepositions.

.

4. Other Words First

as for; as opposed to; as regards; because of; but for; contrary to; courtesy of; due to; irrespective of; part of; prior to; relative to; subsequent to; thanks to

A starting adjective is common here, exceptions being courtesy, part and thanks (all nouns) and as, because and but (conjunctions). Every combination except irrespective of is alternatively usable as an ordinary adjective phrase.

Preposition-based adjectives only describe a noun just before them, e.g. accidents due to darkness (not *due accidents to darkness). Ordinary adjectives preceding a preposition are more flexible. For example, opposite can make either the colour opposite to white or the opposite colour to white. This distinction can be useful for recognising when adjectives do not make a multi-word preposition (see 203. Expanding an Adjective with Words after it).

For details of as regards, see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #9. On due to, owing to, courtesy of and thanks to, see 72. Causal Prepositions. On but for, see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #1. On part of, see 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #2.

215. Naming Exceptions

.

Exceptions have to be named in different ways in different situations

FEATURES OF EXCEPTION-NAMING

Exceptions are closely associated with the frequent professional writing need to state a rule or generalization: they are the realities that so often contradict or fail to fit in with an attempt to generalize (see 95. Numbers & Generalizations). Language learners will have a special familiarity with the way rules and generalizations tend to involve exceptions!

Like most common meanings, exceptions can be expressed in English in a wide variety of ways. Some are often mentioned in language courses, but I have rarely seen a complete overview. This post considers the variety of exception-showing prepositions, important differences between except, except for and except that, and the numerous other types of word that can show exceptions. Among these latter are some rarely-described possibilities like unless, only, however, unusual and breaks the trend.

.

NAMING EXCEPTIONS WITH A PREPOSITION

Exception-naming prepositions are, like prepositions for saying how and naming a cause, surprisingly numerous. The main ones are apart from, aside from, bar(ring), but not (or but alone after all…, every…, anything…, nothing… or little…), except, except for, excepting, excluding, other than, save, save for and with the exception of. Many, it is clear, are multi-word, while some are “multi-use” – more familiar when used in another way (see 3. Reading Obstacles 2).

Except and except for are the most central prepositions. They are sometimes interchangeable and sometimes not. Excepting, excluding and barring are preposition-like participles (see 205. Paraphrasing Prepositions with Words of Other Kinds).

1. Except

Most prepositions combine with a following noun to make either adjective-like phrases (describing a preceding noun or equivalent) or adverb-like ones (relating to a verb or entire statement – see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #2). However, except makes adjective-like phrases more easily than adverb-like ones. Part of the reason is that, without for, it often cannot start a sentence. Adjective-like except phrases normally follow a noun expression involving the general idea of “all” or “nothing”:

(a) London has everything except reliable SUNSHINE.

(b) No creatures survive in extreme cold except certain MICRO-ORGANISMS.

(c) An interview will be granted to any applicant except past EMPLOYEES.

The underlined noun expressions here can precede not just except but also any of its synonyms listed above – though but not would sound clumsy after the negative no in (b).

Except in the above sentences is acting like a normal preposition, with a following noun or equivalent (capitalised). However, it is also used sometimes before wording that is not noun-like, but adverb-like or a verb instead.

Adverb-like wording after except (and its synonyms excluding except for and save for) may take the form of an adverb (e.g. except occasionally) or a preposition phrase (e.g. except in winter) or a conjunction statement (e.g. except when winter comes). Hardly surprisingly, except phrases containing any of these are always adverb-like rather than adjective-like – they add information to a verb rather than a preceding noun, and the preposition and conjunction types can start a sentence.

Of the three types of adverb-like wording able to follow except etc., ordinary adverbs are quite rare. Most seem to indicate time or place:

(d) Detainees can go anywhere except outside.

Preposition phrases after except words again mostly indicate either a time, like on occasion, or a place:

(e) Plant growth is ubiquitous, apart from in the desert.

Occasionally, though, a preposition phrase after except may start with a more abstract preposition like regarding, in terms of or in the case of.

The third kind of adverb-like wording after except words, conjunction statements, contain a standard-form verb as well as a noun (see 174. Eight Things to Know about Conjunctions, #7). Likely conjunctions besides when include after, before, if, in order to and while. Although that after except is also a conjunction, it differs from the others in helping to make a single conjunction phrase rather than a preposition + conjunction (see “Other Options” below).

If a verb rather than adverb expression follows except in place of a noun, it normally needs not the typical -ing (“gerund”) form of verbs after a preposition, but the infinitive:

(f) The program DOES EVERYTHING except monitor performance.

(g) Victims of some illnesses can DO LITTLE except rest.

As these show, infinitives after except (monitor and rest) lack the normal to in front of them – i.e. they must be “bare” infinitives (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”). Of the synonyms of except, only apart from, but, other than and save can be used similarly.

An infinitive is not always possible after except: generally the main verb must be DO, and its object must include an extreme quantity expression like all, anything, most, little or nothing. Even then, an infinitive is not always necessary: if DO is in a continuous tense, e.g. is doing in (f), the verb after except will normally have -ing – except monitoring in (f).

This kind of -ing after except is not the same as the following:

(h) Online shopping INVOLVES little except choosing and clicking.

Here, the main verb is INVOLVE, not DO. There is never a possibility of using the infinitive choose instead of choosing. The reason why CHOOSE has -ing is that it is part of the object of a verb (INVOLVE) that always requires any verb within its object to have -ing (see 232. Verbs with an Object + “-ing”).

.

2. Except for

Except for usually seems to need a noun-like partner. This would explain why it can replace except in sentences (a)-(c) but not in (d)-(g). However, except for + noun is more widely usable than except + noun, being more easily able to make adverbial phrases as well as adjectival ones.

One special adverbial use of except for + noun is at the start of a statement, before any generalizing word. Sentences (a)-(c) could all have their exception at the start after except for but not except. They could also have apart from, barring, excepting, excluding, save for and with the exception of (but not but or save).

In addition, except for is necessary later in a sentence, instead of except + noun, when the idea of “all” or “none” is indicated by wording other than a preceding noun or pronoun, e.g.:

(i) The website is perfect except for some access difficulties.

Here, except for links with perfect, an adjective. The idea of “none” is clearly implied because perfect means “has no defects”. Adjectives with such clarity may be quite common before except for (e,g. deserted meaning “without people” and complete meaning “without gaps”). However, adjectives with less clarity also seem possible, e.g. accommodating and uncomfortable.

A problem to guard against with except for is that occasionally it will be not the single multi-word preposition illustrated in (h) but the two separate prepositions except and for acting independently like except and in (e), as in this example:

(j) The average maximum does not exceed 20C except for a few weeks in summer.

Here, for means “throughout” (see 258. Saying How Long Something Lasts). If apart from is used, for would still need to be present.

.

OTHER OPTIONS

1. Conjunctions

Two common conjunctions are except that and unless. The former can, like most …that conjunctions, drop that (see 230. Multi-Word Conjunctions), and is replaceable by except for the fact (that) or save (that). It is needed instead of except for when the wording of the exception contains a verb. Compare the following with (i):

(k) The website is perfect except that it gives some access difficulties.

Gives is the verb here necessitating except that instead of except for.

A particularly common type of wording before except that indicates similarity or difference, e.g. (un)like, similar(ity), identical, the same, different and (un)related:

(l) Time is like a river, except that it never ends.

Unless, on the other hand, seems usable only as an alternative to except if or except when¹. Consider this rewording of sentence (c):

(m) An interview will be granted to any applicant unless (= except if) they are a past employee.

There will often be a pronoun after unless (they above), representing the previously-mentioned general class. This is any applicant above (they showing gender neutrality: see the end of 204. Grammatical Agreement). In sentence (b), unless they are would refer to creatures, while in (e) unless it is would refer to plant growth. 

Here is an example of an except when sentence that is easily paraphrased with unless:

(n) Snakes will generally not attack except when they feel threatened.

.

2. New-Sentence Expressions

Exceptions can be named in a different sentence from that of their relevant generalization. One way to do so is with only. However, its basic meaning implies that all possible exceptions are being named (see 251. The Grammar of “Only”, #4), thus ruling out selective naming:

(o) Few creatures survive in extreme cold. Only certain micro-organisms do.

(p) Plant growth is surprisingly rapid. Only in winter is it different.

(q) Online shopping INVOLVES little. Choosing and clicking are the only requirements.

Note how (o), unlike (b), begins with few rather than no. I think this is a consequence of the naming of the exception in a new sentence.

An alternative to only is various words derived from except. In (o), for example, Only…do could be replaced by …are exceptions or …are exceptional. The second part of (p) can be rewritten The exception is in winter or Wintertime is exceptional. There are also synonyms of such replacements: exceptional can become unusual or atypical, and is exceptional can become breaks the trend or does not conform.

With exceptional, the context must just imply “breaking the rule” – otherwise the idea of “special” will be present (see 284 Words with a Surprising Meaning, #9). To link exception/s to a noun like this rule / trend / pattern, the preposition must be to, not of (see 35. Words Followed by “to -ing”). 

Another useful option for stating any kind of exception in a new sentence is a “concession” connector like however, yet or nevertheless (see 20. Problem Connectors, #3). Often this will correspond to an except that or except when statement without a new sentence:

(r) Time is like a river. However, (= except that) it never ends.

(s) Snakes will generally not attack. However, they will do so when (= except when) they feel threatened.

Also notable is the use of not all or similar (not every, not always etc.) in the first sentence:

(t) Not all species were destroyed by a meteorite. Crocodiles survive to this day.

Here, the second sentence just names the exception without the use of exception wording. This is common but not compulsory – Crocodiles are an exception is possible above too. Using not all usually implies that the generalization in the first sentence (excluding not) is already known by the addressee.

___________

¹I am grateful to a reader for pointing out a flaw in a previous sentence about using unless (see comments by “Neo” below).

205. Paraphrasing Prepositions with Words of Other Kinds

.

A significant number of paraphrase possibilities are alternatives to a preposition

REASONS FOR PARAPHRASING PREPOSITIONS

The skill of paraphrase – being able to say the same thing in different ways – is not often given the recognition it deserves. It is valuable not just for reporting other writers’ ideas (see 76. Tenses of Citation Verbs), but also for facilitating aspects of one’s own writing, such as conciseness (see 265. Grammar Tools for Better Writing), repetition (see 286. Repeating in Different Words), and avoidance of unknown and undesirable wording (see 202. Some Strategies for Learning English, Practice Strategy #2). In fact, for many people the very act of writing probably involves constant paraphrase.

A Guinlist post on paraphrase techniques (80. How to Paraphrase) distinguishes two basic types, depending on the size of the text in question. Paraphrase of longer texts tends to happen more automatically, provided they are approached in the right way. Shorter texts present more of a challenge because we are more conscious of their wording when we are looking to paraphrase them. The advice that the post gives regarding shorter texts is to avoid synonym-substitution, and to look instead for new words that are grammatically different. Reordering the meanings in a sentence is suggested to be a particularly effective means of achieving this objective.

However, a problem with this approach, useful as it is, is that it assumes a fairly strong command of English grammar and vocabulary. I can imagine that some writers who have not grown up using English will sometimes find, after thinking of a new way to say something, that it requires linguistic knowledge that they lack. Making an impact on this problem is not an easy task, given the vastness of English grammar and vocabulary. However, it is what I am attempting in the present post, in the belief that ways of paraphrasing prepositions bring together under one heading quite a wide range of English usage. For a similar study of adjectives, see 270. Paraphrasing Adjectives.

.

PREPOSITION REPLACEMENT WITH A VERB

Prepositions are usable in various ways: some express their own meaning, some belong to a particular grammatical structure, and some result from the choice of another word (see 111. Words with a Typical Preposition). Verbs are particularly able to paraphrase the first kind. Consider this:

(a) The Harbour Bridge goes over/across Sydney Harbour.

The same meaning is conveyed by replacing the underlined words with the verb crosses or spans. These verbs replace a preposition combined with another verb (often GO or BE). However, directly after a noun their participle -ing form may replace a preposition alone (see 320. Special Participle Uses, #1). For example, the bridge across = the bridge spanning (see 295. Options in Saying Where, #2), animals except dogs = animals excepting dogs (see 215. Naming Exceptions), and life without excitement = life lacking excitement.

Here are some common equivalences:

GO INTO = ENTER; PENETRATE
GO ALONG = PARALLEL
GO OUT OF = LEAVE; EXIT
GO PAST = OVERTAKE
GO THROUGH = PIERCE; TRANSIT
GO TOWARDS = APPROACH
LIVE IN = INHABIT
BE AROUND = SURROUND
BE/COME AFTER = FOLLOW
BE/COME BEFORE = PRECEDE
BE BESIDE = FLANK
BE/GO BETWEEN = CONNECT; LINK; SEPARATE
BE LIKE = RESEMBLE
BE NEXT TO = ADJOIN
BE IN = FILL; BELONG TO
BE ON = OCCUPY
BE/GO WITH = ACCOMPANY
BE WITHOUT = LACK

Note how the verb-preposition combinations resemble prepositional verbs, where the verb and preposition are more closely linked together (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #6). Prepositional verbs too can be paraphrased without the preposition, usually for greater formality. Common examples are:

GO INTO = INVESTIGATE
ASK FOR = REQUEST
DEAL WITH = MANAGE
LOOK FOR = SEEK
REFER TO = CONSULT
THINK ABOUT = CONSIDER

For more, see 108. Formal and Informal Words.

Other verbs are able to paraphrase some of the more grammatical uses of prepositions. Consider this:

(b) Oxygen is collected in/by a gas jar.

With passive verbs like is collected, a noun after by represents what would be the subject of the verb in the active form – it would say here that a gas jar was doing the collecting – while one after in would represent a container-like tool, implying that the verb action was performed by a background human (see 73. Prepositions for Saying How).

In both cases, the preposition can be paraphrased by exchanging the verb for a new one in the active form, e.g. fills. This would attribute the action to the subject of the sentence (oxygen), but most readers would nevertheless recognise that this is just a convention of English to play down human involvement, and would hence reach the correct interpretation.

Paraphrasing a grammatical word like by after passive verbs with a non-grammatical word like fills is surprisingly often possible in English (see 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar). Of course, it enables not just by to be removed but also a possibly undesirable passive verb (see 27. How to Avoid Passive Verbs).

Giving non-living things metaphorical responsibility for an action seems a common way to avoid prepositions. How could the following be reworded?

(c) In London, the weather is frequently cloudy.

Again, the noun after the preposition can become a main part of the sentence: London has frequent cloudy weather. The link shown here between is in and has is often useful – see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences, #7. Care is needed, however, to avoid the hybrid *In London has… (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #5).

To take one final example, purpose-naming is for -ing (see 60. Purpose Sentences with “For”) can be replaced by just the ordinary form of the -ing verb:

(d) The PRT SC key photographs (= is for photographing) the screen.

.

REPLACEMENT WITH A CONJUNCTION

Conjunctions resemble prepositions in the grammatical structures they help to form, in the kinds of meaning that they have, and sometimes even in their spellings. The main difference is that prepositions must be followed just by a noun or noun equivalent while conjunctions usually need at least a full verb with its subject. Thus, to paraphrase a preposition with a conjunction, one usually needs to add such a verb. Consider this:

(e) Jets are especially noisy during take-off.

A conjunction that means virtually the same as the preposition during is while (see 225. Simultaneous Occurrence). One could use it by replacing the noun take-off with the verb TAKE OFF: …while they are taking off.

Not all prepositions are as easily paraphrased with a conjunction. Here are some other more obvious ones. Details of the highlighted ones can be accessed by clicking on the links.

according to – as
at/on – when/if
because of/ due to/ out of – as/because/since
besides/ along with – and
despite – although
in case of – in case
instead of – rather than/ sooner than (+ “bare” infinitive)
in the event of – if
like – just as
with – while/if

In addition, there are some spellings usable as both a preposition and a conjunction. The main ones are after, as, before, since and until (see 174. Eight Things to Know about Conjunctions, #8).

.

PAIRED NOUN PARAPHRASES

Paired nouns are two (or more) nouns placed together so that the first describes the second in an adjective-like way (see 38. Nouns Used like Adjectives). Examples are a police warning, library books and The Kolkata climate. One way of telling that the first noun is not an adjective (like, for example, clear) is by observing that that is cannot sensibly be added between the two when their order is reversed (*a warning that is police), this being a usual possibility with adjectives (a warning that is clear).

More relevant here, though, is the fact that nouns, unlike adjectives, can reverse their order if a preposition is added between them, e.g. a warning by the police. In other words, paired nouns can be paraphrased with a preposition – and this means two nouns with a preposition between them can often (though not always) be paraphrased as paired nouns.

This kind of equivalence is extensively illustrated in the Guinlist post 136. Types of Description by Nouns. The main point made there is the variety of prepositions whose meaning can be expressed by noun pairing, as the following examples indicate:

books ABOUT history = history books
the sun AT midday = the midday sun
damage BY water = water damage
tools FOR learning = learning tools
rays FROM the sun = sun rays
forces IN the market = market forces
cooking LIKE that at home = home cooking
generation OF electricity = electricity generation
a tax ON sugar = a sugar tax
books WITH a hard cover = hard-cover books

A preposition particularly associated with such combinations is of: for numerous other examples, see 160. Uses of “of”.

The fact that paired nouns cannot always paraphrase a preposition can be a problem. Sometimes the preposition is the only possibility (e.g. the time of day; a book with answers), sometimes an apostrophe construction is the only alternative (e.g. the density of iron/iron’s density – see 58. Optional Apostrophe Endings), and sometimes the noun after the preposition can become an adjective (e.g. pollution of the atmosphere / atmospheric pollution; vacancies for managers / managerial vacancies).

.

ADVERB PARAPHRASES

Preposition phrases are either adjective-like (describing a preceding noun, as in the previous section) or adverb-like (describing a verb, adjective or entire sentence). The adverb-like kind can, when made with particular types of noun, be paraphrased by a simple adverb. For example, with ease, in haste and without doubt are very similar to easily, hastily and undoubtedly. For numerous further examples, see 85. Preposition Phrases and Corresponding Adverbs.

.

PRACTICE EXERCISE: PARAPHRASING PREPOSITIONS

To assist appreciation of the above points, try paraphrasing the given sentences so that they contain no prepositions. Possible answers are given after.

1. The use of social media has exploded since the start of the century.

2. Temperatures across the world are affected by moving currents in the ocean.

3. In academic writing, one must paraphrase or quote the words of other writers.

4. A full stop must go between two verbs without a joining device.

5. The march on Rome by Caesar led to him becoming dictator.

6. A poor diet leads in general to problems with health.

7. With demand curves economists can find optimum prices of commodities.

8. A message of great urgency was sent by headquarters three hours ago.

9. With illiteracy eradicated, great benefit will be brought to the country.

.

Suggested Answers (avoided prepositions in brackets)

1. (of, since, of) Social media use has exploded since (= conjunction) the century started.

2. (across, by, in) World temperatures reflect moving ocean currents.

3. (in, of) Academic writing requires one to paraphrase or quote other writers’ words.

4. (between, without) A full stop must separate two verbs lacking (if they lack) a joining device.

5. (on, by, to) Caesar’s Rome march meant that he became (caused him to become) dictator.

6. (in, to, with) A poor diet generally brings health problems.

7. (with, of) Demand curves enable economists to find optimum commodity prices.

8. (of, by) A highly urgent message left headquarters three hours ago.

9. (with, to) If (When) illiteracy is eradicated, great benefit will embrace the country (or Eradicating illiteracy will greatly benefit the country).