155. Silent Consonants

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75% of English consonant letters sometimes appear in the spelling of a word without being pronounceable

THE PROBLEM OF SILENT CONSONANTS

One of the many peculiarities of English spelling is its occasional use of consonant letters that are not pronounced when the word is spoken. This phenomenon is likely to be encountered by learners of English even at very elementary levels, in such words as knee, night and talk. A common reason for it is that the unexpected spellings once did represent the way their word was pronounced, but they stopped doing so because the pronunciation of the word changed as a result of the natural evolution that all languages undergo. The spellings of the words have not changed because the invention of printing made spellings in general more standardized and fixed.

Many words with a silent consonant actually do not seem to be much of a learning problem. However, a fair number can cause erroneous pronunciation of the consonants in speech, and some can cause spelling errors (see 188. Causes of Common Spelling Mistakes). In this post I wish to survey and classify the wide variety of words that contain one or more silent consonants, in the hope that raised awareness might assist some readers to improve their pronunciation or spelling of English.

Other Guinlist posts touching on consonant pronunciation include 90. The Greek Impact on English Vocabulary,  135. French Influences on English Vocabulary and 243. Pronunciation Secrets. For information about unexpected pronunciations of vowels, see 29. Illogical Vowel Spellings and 86. The Pronunciation of “e” and “i”.

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DEFINITION OF SILENT CONSONANTS

It is important to distinguish silent consonants from a variety of other consonant letters that are not pronounced in their typical way. Of these latter, an important group is consonant letters that combine with a neighbouring letter either to make a sound that neither would make by itself or to remove ambiguity about how the other letter should be pronounced. If this other letter is a vowel, the indicated sound will also be a vowel; otherwise it will be a consonant.

Typical consonant letters that combine with a vowel for these purposes, so that they cannot be considered silent, are “h”, “w” and “y”, as in oh, cow and toy. The letter “r” is also one in Australian and Southern British English, for example in cart and term (it only ever has the /r/ sound at the start of a syllable), but is clearly pronounced in the USA, Ireland and Scotland. Two consonant letters that commonly combine with particular other consonant letters in one way or another are “h” in words like choice, phrase, show and think, and “k” after “c” (back, check, ticket etc.).

Another type of consonant letter that is not silent despite being pronounced in an unexpected way is, in certain positions, the letters for the so-called “plosive” consonants (/p, t, k, b, d, g/). These letters are often only partially pronounced before other plosive sounds (as in stop doing and log cabin) and at the end of sentences (see 91. Pronunciation in Reading Aloud). It is easy to think they are completely silent in such situations when in fact they are not.

Thirdly, I am not considering any letters within a doubled consonant to be silent. Although it is true that most doubled consonants in English are pronounced no differently from single ones, so that logically one of the pair could be called “silent”, doubled consonants are so common in English (see 248. When to Double a Consonant), and the rule for pronouncing them is so simple, that nothing seems likely to be gained from listing all the possibilities.

Repetition of the same consonant at the end of one word and the start of the next, as in can never, while looking and turned down, is even less of interest, since here the double occurrence does make a pronunciation difference. Although the two identical letters are pronounced as a single sound, they need more time to be pronounced than if they were just a single letter (see “lengthening” in 91. Pronunciation in Reading Aloud). Similar to these are neighbouring consonants in the same word that are spelled differently but represent a single sound, such as -nm- in environment and and -db- in handbag (see 243. Pronunciation Secrets, #1). Here, the first letter is not pronounced, but it still increases the time needed to say the second.

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COMMON SILENT CONSONANTS IN ENGLISH

The following categories of silent consonant are identifiable:

1. The Letter “k”

This seems to be silent only and always at the start of words (even words within longer words) where there is a following “n” (knack, knead, knee, breadknife, knight, knock, know, knuckle etc.).

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2. The Letter “h”

At the start of a word, this letter is silent in honour and its derivatives (honourable, honorific, honorarium etc.) and also honest. In addition, there are hour and heir.

In most varieties of English, “h” after a starting “w” is silent, as in wheat, when, where, whether, whet, whey, while, whistle and why.

Inside words, a common silent occurrence is in -ham at the end of British (not American) place names like Birmingham, Cheltenham, Tottenham and Nottingham (the pronounciation is /-әm/ in all of these). The word vehicle has no /h/ sound, being pronounced /’vi: jә kl/, and there is none in shepherd and silhouette. The “h” in Thames can also be called silent because it does not alter the /t/ to /θ/. Similar is “h” after “r” in words of Greek origin like rhyme, rhino and diarrhoea.

Finally, “h” is silent after “c” in words of Greek origin, such as choir; it does not change the sound of “c” in any way (see 90. The Greek Impact on English Vocabulary). Other examples are anarchy, anchor, character, cholesterol, chorus, Christmas, chrome, epoch, orchestra, psychology and scheme.

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3. The Letter “p”

Words of Greek origin beginning “ps-”, “pt-” or “pn-“ tend to be pronounced without the /p/ (see 90. The Greek Impact on English Vocabulary). Examples are combinations with psych- (psychology, psychic) and pseudo- (pseudonym, pseudopod), as well as psalm, pterodactyl and pneumatic.

Elsewhere, three notable words are receipt (/rɪ ‘si:t/), coup (/ku:/) and corps (/kɔ:/), the latter two being borrowings from French.

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4. The Letter “b”

A major context for the silence of this letter is after “m” at the end of a word, as in bomb, climb, comb, crumb, dumb, lamb, limb, tomb and womb. The “b” remains silent even after the addition of -ing, -ed or -er (bombing, combing, dumbing, lambed, dumber), but not in the verbs crumble (which is like humble and tumble) or limber (like timber).

In addition, there are some words where a silent “b” is followed by “t”, e.g. debt, doubt and subtle.

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5. The Letter “l”

The main locations where this is silent are inside the three modal verbs could, would, should; between “a”/“o” and “k” in words like stalk, talk, walk, folk and yolk; and between “a” and “m”, e.g. alms, calm, palm, psalm and salmon.

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6. The Letter “s”

A few words of French origin have a silent “s” at the end (corps, debris, fracas, rendezvous). Words with it in the middle include isle, aisle, island and viscount. The “i” is pronounced /ɑɪ/ in all of these (see 86. The Pronunciation of “e” and “i”).

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7. The Letter “t”

This letter is usually silent when sandwiched between “s” and “le”, as in bustle, castle, epistle, pestle, rustle and thistle, and often silent between “f” (or “s”) and “en” in words like often, soften, listen, glisten, fasten and hasten.

Words that end in “-et” tend to be borrowings from French. Some must be pronounced in the French way, ending in the vowel /eɪ/ without “t”, some not (see 135. French Influences on English Vocabulary). The former include ballet, beret, bidet, bouquet, buffet (= self-service food), cachet, chalet, croquet, duvet, ricochet, sobriquet, tourniquet and valet. Two other French-derived words with a silent final “t” are depot and rapport.

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8. The Letter “w”

There are two striking contexts for this silent letter. One is words beginning “wr-”, such as wrangle, wreck, wrestle, wring, write, wrong, wrought and wry. The other is a few words (usually place names) ending in “-wich” or “-wick”, for example Greenwich and Harwich (but not Midwich) and Chiswick and Warwick (but not Gatwick or Northwick).

Another notable place name is Southwark (pronounced /’sʌ ԺƏk/), and “w” is also silent in two, who, whole, sword and awry.

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9. The Letter “c”

One silent use of this letter is after “s” in words like ascent, crescent, irascible, miscellaneous, nascent, reminisce, scene, sceptre (but not sceptic), science and visceral. This group does not include rescind because the “c” there is changing the pronunciation of the neighbouring “s” into /∫/. Another use is before unstressed “es” in such British place names as Leicester, Worcester, Bicester and Gloucester. One other notable silent “c” is in indict.

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10. The Letter “g”

This letter is commonly silent between “i” and “n” in words like align, benign, deign, feign, foreign, malign, reign, sign and sovereign. However, it is not silent in poignant (since it changes the following /n/ to /nj/) nor in benignant and malignant. Other notable words are champagne, gnaw, gnome, gnu and phlegm. Recognise seems to allow a choice about pronouncing the “g”.

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11. The Letters “gh”

These are well-known silent letters before “t” in words like bright, fight, might, tight, ought, brought, sought, thought, caught, taught, eight, height and weight. They also occur without the “t” in though, through, bough, plough, high, weigh, neighbour etc. (however, they are less “silent” in cough and tough because the consonant sound /f/, though unexpected, exists where they occur).

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12. Other Letters

There is a silent “n” at the end of autumn, column, condemn, hymn  and solemn, while at the start of mnemonic it is the “m” that is silent. In iron, the “r” is silent, in yacht the “ch” and in Wednesday the first “d” (along with the following “e”). Some borrowed French words, such as laissez-faire and rendezvous, contain a silent “z”.

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It is probable that some interesting examples of silent consonants are missing from these lists. Readers who are aware of any are invited to mention them via the comment facility below.

154. Lone Prepositions after BE

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Some prepositions can be used like an adverb after BE to express a very idiomatic meaning

DEFINITION OF LONE PREPOSITIONS

English prepositions normally need a partner noun or equivalent, e.g. on time, across the sea (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #1). However, some preposition-like words are also sometimes used rather informally with no partner word after a complement-taking verb like BE. I am not referring here to sentences like the flight that they are on, where a partner pronoun (that) is placed first, but rather to expressions like the match is on and the time is up. It is this usage without a partner noun that is meant by “lone” above.

In fact, this kind of usage is probably not prepositional at all. Rather, the positioning after BE – which imposes the sentence role of “complement” – indicates a noun, adjective or adverb usage (see 220. Features of Complements, #3). It is most likely that lone “prepositions” after BE are actually adverbs. A major indication of this is their resemblance to the preposition-like adverbs in so-called “phrasal verbs” like set out and turn on (see 139. Phrasal Verbs, #4): they usually correspond to the same subgroup of prepositions, and can express the same idiomatic meanings, which are not always obvious (see 229. Metaphorical Prepositions).

The main concern of the present post is to survey the variety of preposition-like words that can be used by themselves after BE, and to analyse some of the more idiomatic meanings that they can express.

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IDIOMATIC USES OF LONE “PREPOSITIONS”

The following prepositions can be used by themselves after complement-taking verbs like BE to express an idiomatic meaning:

On

Reflecting one of the meanings of the phrasal verb PUT ON, a frequent meaning of on by itself is “scheduled”. A typical use might be:

(a) There are six matches on in the evening.

Another common meaning – “operating” – is found with devices that we SWITCH ON, like lights and engines. Thus, saying that they are on means lights are shining, engines running.

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Off

This can be an opposite of on, meaning either “postponed” or “not operating”. A related meaning is “unavailable” to describe an item on a restaurant menu.

In addition, there is a meaning similar to that in the phrasal verb SET OFF, i.e. “starting” or “leaving”. It is common, for example, to hear racing commentators mark the start of a race with the words they’re off. In the film The Wizard of Oz, a song marking the start of a journey to meet him begins with the words We’re off to see the Wizard.

A third meaning is “no longer edible”. Sour milk, for example, may be referred to as off.

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In

Probably the most common usage is to say that somebody is “present within their home/workplace”.

However, in certain restricted situations other meanings are found. In the games of cricket and baseball players are in when it is their turn to try and amass points on the field (see 137. Words that Reflect English Culture). In the context of a communal plan or decision, a person who is in has agreed to be involved in it (cp. the phrasal verb JOIN IN).

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Out

The main meaning of this word after BE is probably “absent on an errand”. The absence will be brief and could be from home or the workplace. An alternative is not in. Out can also be used in a variety of more restricted ways:

1. Lights can be described as out instead of off when they are no longer providing illumination (cp. TURN OUT/OFF).

2. Workers on strike are sometimes said to be out (cp. WALK OUT).

3. In the games of cricket and baseball, a player is out when s/he is forced to give up the points-scoring role on the field.

4. A person who has lost consciousness is sometimes said to be out.

5. A recently-released prisoner could also be labelled out.

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Up

Usually, saying that somebody is up means they are no longer in bed (cp. GET UP). In East Africa, there is an alternative meaning of “in a higher part of a building”, but Standard English prefers to say this with upstairs or, if the speaker is in a lower part of the same building, (up) above (see 26. One Word or Two? and the technical article Should East African university students change the way they speak English?).

Buildings can also be described as up, meaning that their construction has just been completed (cp. PUT UP). The expression time is up means that a deadline has been reached. The question What’s up? means “What problem are you affected by?”

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Down

One use of down means the opposite of up in the “constructed” sense, i.e.  “dismantled” (cp. PULL DOWN). Related to this is a use with computer systems meaning “temporarily not operating”.

BE down could also describe someone who has recently moved from a higher part of a building to a lower one. Recent descent is also suggested, in a more metaphorical way, when down describes either someone “visiting the south from the north” (the speaker being also in the south – see 151. Ways of Using Compass Words), or body temperature that is “lower than before”. 

However, to say that someone is just in a lower place, without suggesting recent movement, it is better to use downstairs. A speaker higher up in the same place could also use (down) below.

One other meaning of down after BE is “unhappy” or “depressed”.

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Away

The basic meaning of this word (which is never actually a preposition) is similar to the “absent on an errand” meaning of out. However, it conveys a more extended absence: sleeping somewhere else for at least one night. A person on holiday, for example, might be described as away.

Less commonly, reflecting the meaning of GET AWAY, people can be labelled away after escaping the efforts of others to restrict them, for example on a sports field. Escapees from prison, however, would not normally be described as away.

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Through

A drill or boring machine can be described as through when it has reached the far side of what it is being used on (cp. BREAK THROUGH). A metaphorical extension of this meaning is “in telephone contact” (cp. GET THROUGH). A very informal usage, often applied to two people ending a romantic relationship, means “finished”.

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Near

There does not seem to be much difference between this word and the more adverbial nearby. After BE, near is perhaps preferred with travellers rather than places, suggesting that the nearness is a result of movement (see 254. Tricky Word Contrasts 10, #4).

The opposite of both words in the use after BE is rarely far but far away or far off. Far by itself seems more likely with ordinary verbs, particularly those that express movement rather than position, as in journeyed far.

 

Over

A very frequent meaning of this after BE is “finished” (e.g. work is over). In addition, over can mean “here” or “visiting”, but only with a suggestion that the visitor has crossed some kind of barrier, such as the sea. For example an American in Europe might be asked:

(b) How long are you over for?

However, if the barrier is flat and more local, across might be preferred.

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Under

To describe someone as under is often to say that they are unconscious as a result of anaesthesia.

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This completes my list of the more idiomatic meanings. In addition, there are prepositions that seem to be usable alone after BE without a particularly idiomatic meaning, such as after, above, before, below, inside, opposite and outside.

Prepositions that seem unable to be used at all by themselves after BE include beside, by, for, from, of, to, until, upon and with.