321. Types of “-ing” Verb after a Verb

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There are  a variety of circumstances where a verb after another one has “-ing”

THE VARIETY OF POSSIBILITIES

A verb ending with -ing may be an adjective-like “participle” or a noun-like “gerund” (see 71. Gerund and Participle Uses of “-ing”). Either of these forms may combine closely with a verb placed just before them. They can do so in various ways, of which the main ones may be illustrated as follows:

(a) Doctors recommend taking a daily walk.

(b) Doctors foresee children becoming more obese.

(c) Children enjoy hearing (or adults telling) stories.

(d) Children like hearing (or adults telling) stories.

(e) Children can help friends struggling to learn.

(f) Parents should go walking with their children.

(g) A recommended form of exercise is walking.

In (a) here, taking directly follows the verb recommend and is understood as its grammatical object, making it noun-like and hence a gerund. In (b), becoming is separated from the verb foresee by the noun children, the gerund’s subject. Sentence (c) illustrates a verb (enjoy) that can go either directly before an -ing object (hearing) or before an intervening noun (adults telling). In the latter case, both words are the object but the primary meaning is still with the gerund (see 232. Verbs with an Object + “-ing”).

Sentence (d) above is similar to (c), but it illustrates a verb (like) that allows a following -ing verb (hearing, telling) to be replaced by a to (infinitive) verb carrying a slightly different meaning (to hear, to tell).

In (e), struggling follows the verb help and its noun object friends. Unlike in (b) and (c), however, this noun is the primary word in the object – it is only friends that receive the mentioned help, not their struggles. Thus, struggling is merely a description of the type of friends involved, making it adjective-like and hence a participle.

In (f), walking cannot be the object of go before it (because GO is an intransitive verb), but is instead a participle describing the subject of go (parents). In (g), walking is a complement of the verb BE, exactly identifying a recommended form of exercise, the subject of BE (see 117. Restating Generalizations More Specifically, #1). As such, it is a gerund.

The above sentences do not illustrate every possible way in which an -ing verb can follow another verb. One major excluded type is BE + participle, as in Children are playing. It is excluded because the participle is not sufficiently separate from BE, acting instead in partnership with it to make a single verb form, the present continuous tense of WALK. The other major excluded type is what I call “add-on” participles, which are not closely linked to the main verb in the sentence, but describe its subject, like this:

(h) The research ANALYSED markets PAYING particular attention to prices.

Here, the subject of paying is not markets, the object of analysed, but the research, its subject. For discussion of sentences like this, see 101. Add-on Participles.

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VERBS ASSOCIATED WITH EACH TYPE

1. Verbs like RECOMMEND

There seem to be relatively few verbs after which an -ing verb is always an object/gerund without an intervening noun, as in (a). Common ones are ADVISE, CONSIDER (= decide whether to perform the -ing action), DENY, RECOMMEND, REGRET, REJECT, RESUME and SUGGEST. Of these, ADVISE is most able to have a noun before a following verb, but the verb then needs to be changed into the to form (see 250. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar 1, #3).

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2. Verbs like FORESEE

Adding a noun before an -ing object, as in (b), is usually necessary after some cause-effect verbs of the prepositional kind, e.g. CONTRIBUTE TO, HOPE FOR, LEAD TO, LONG FOR, RESULT IN (see 32. Expressing Consequences) and WARN OF, plus a small number of other verbs, including DEMONSTRATE (= “present”), DISCOVER (= accidentally encounter”), FORECAST, FORESEE, PREDICT and SHOW (= “present”).

 

3. Verbs like ENJOY

Ability to be used equally with or without a noun before an -ing gerund is probably the most commonly found. Common verbs possessing it include ACCEPT, ANTICIPATE, APPRECIATE, AVOID, CATCH (= “observe … acting secretly”), ENDURE, ENJOY, ENTAIL, ENVISAGE, HINDER, IMAGINE, INSIST ON, INVOLVE, KEEP, LOOK FORWARD TO, MEAN (= entail), (NOT) MIND, MODEL, NECESSITATE, OBSERVE, PHOTOGRAPH, PREVENT, RECORD, RISK, STOP, STUDY and THINK OF (= picture).

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4. Verbs like LIKE

Verbs that can link with either -ing or to… after them, giving each a different meaning without changing themselves, are of two main types. With the more common, -ing (Children like hearing…) draws attention to its verb’s action through time, whereas an infinitive (Children like to hear…) presents the action as more instantaneous.

Verbs that can make this contrast fall into three meaning groups. LIKE is a like/dislike verb. Similar are LONG FOR, LOVE, PREFER, WANT, YEARN FOR and HATE. However, not all like/ dislike verbs allow the to/-ing choice: only -ing is possible after APPRECIATE, APPROVE OF, DISLIKE, ENJOY, WELCOME, ABHOR, DETEST, DISAGREE WITH and LOATH (see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1, #b). Underlined verbs in both lists can also link with it that… (see 190. Special Uses of “it”, #4).

Next among verbs allowing the above -ing/to… choice are a few that express sensation. Examples are FEEL, HEAR, LISTEN TO, NOTICE, SEE, SENSE, SMELL and WATCH. With these, the choice is better said to involve an “infinitive” than a to verb because to must be dropped (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, #2).

The third choice-allowing group express dependency, with verbs like COUNT ON, DEPEND ON, NEED, RELY ON and REQUIRE. Outside of these three areas, HAVE meaning “cause” also allows the -ing/infinitive choice, the latter again without to (see the end of 116. Rarer Uses of HAVE).

The second broad type of verb that can link with a following verb ending in either -ing or to… also requires the choice to be made according to an aspect of the following verb’s meaning – but not the aspect outlined above.

The verbs FORGET and REMEMBER, for example, need -ing with past remembered events and to with future ones. They allow an intervening noun in the first case but not the second. BEGIN, CEASE and CONTINUE allow either –ing or to…, without any intervening noun. Often, there is no meaning difference, but sometimes there seems to be association with either a single extended action or multiple repeated ones.

TRY needs -ing to imply experimentation with a behaviour, and to… to imply that a preferred behaviour is being attempted with effort that may fail. PROPOSE means “suggest” with -ing and “intend” with to…. OMIT means “not mention” with -ing and “not do” with to…. For more on such distinctions, see 302. Verbs with a Partner Infinitive, #2.

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5. Verbs with an “-ing” Participle

Any verb that can have a noun object is likely to be usable with a subsequent -ing participle, as in (e) above. Some verbs, such as HELP in (e), will not allow an -ing gerund instead, but some will. With the latter, a double meaning sometimes occurs. Consider this:

(i) Some experiments involve animals suffering pain.

If suffering here is a participle, the message is that suffering pain is not the focus of some experiments. Rather, the type of animals involved in the experiments – those already suffering pain – is being specified. By contrast, if suffering here is a gerund, the message is that animal pain is induced during the experiments (see 257. Structures with a Double Meaning 4, #2).

 

6. Verbs like GO

GO is unusual in allowing a following -ing participle without an intervening noun. The noun it describes is instead the subject of the GO verb. Its most typical meaning in such cases is “go out to enjoy…”. Commonly-used participles are driving, hiking, hunting, riding, running, shopping, swimming, visiting and walking (see 176. Ways of Using “Go”, #3).

Similar to GO -ing are COME -ing (see 290. Ways of Using COME), and TAKE someone -ing (see 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE, #17).

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7. Verbs like BE

As mentioned above, BE may combine with an -ing participle to make a standard present continuous tense form. However, if the meaning does not fit this interpretation, as in sentence (g), an -ing form is likely to be a gerund (for a particularly interesting example, see 69. How Computers Get Grammar Wrong 2, sentence #b).

The reason for the existence of two possibilities after BE is that it is a verb typically needing a “complement”, a sentence component that may be either adjective-like, opening the way for participles, or noun-like, opening the way for gerunds (see 220. Features of Complements, #2).

Different complement-taking verbs have different requirements. REMAIN is very like BE, but BECOME and SEEM are unlikely to have a following participle (preferring a noun or adjective instead). TURN is unlikely to have either a participle or gerund, normally preferring an adjective. Some complement-taking verbs, moreover, including BE and BECOME, allow a noun before a partner -ing word:

(j) The saddest sight was children begging for food.

In these cases, the distinction between a participle and gerund seems blurred.

320. Special Participle Uses

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Some participle uses involve only a small subset of participles as a whole

GENERAL AND SPECIAL PARTICIPLE USES

Participles – verbs with -ing or passive -ed acting like adjectives to describe a noun – have a variety of uses that might be termed “general”, for example as a replacement for who or which (see 52. Participles Placed Just after a Noun). Uses that I am calling “special”, on the other hand, are ones that require particular participles instead of allowing a free choice. Most help to form fixed expressions like depending on.

The aim of this post is to identify different types of special participle use, and to illustrate them with as wide a variety as possible of their associated participles. The post thus belongs among various others with “special” in their title, such as 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences,  190. Special Uses of “It”,  200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses and 235. Special Uses of “the”.

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TYPES OF SPECIAL USE

1. Preposition Equivalents

Ability to paraphrase a preposition seems to be more usual among -ing participles than -ed ones (see 295. Options in Saying Where, #2). An example of a participle equating to a preposition is accompanying instead of with:

(a)  There will be a letter accompanying the parcel.

ACCOMPANY is a rare verb whose -ed form (+ by) can also replace with:

(b)  The parcel will come accompanied by a letter.

It is only some participles that can replace a preposition. One reason is that many participle meanings are too far away from a preposition meaning to represent one. Another is that usable participles must be made from object-requiring (“transitive”) verbs, so that their object can become the “object” noun that prepositions always need (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #1). Thus, participles from object-refusing verbs, such as SUFFICE, are ruled out.

Participles that commonly act like a preposition include the following:

comprising – of (see 136. Types of Description by Nouns, #12)
concerning – about
considering – in view of (see 296. Tricky Word Contrasts 12, #4)
containing – of (see 160. Uses of “Of”)
covering – over
excepting – except (see 215. Naming Exceptions)
facing – opposite
flanking – alongside, next to
following – after, behind
lacking – without
neighbouring – near
occupying – on
passing – past
piercing – through
preceding – before
regarding – with regard to
spanning – across
supporting – under
surrounding – around
using – with (see 73. Prepositions for Saying How)

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2. In Compound Adjectives

Participles can easily combine with an adverb, adjective or noun to make a compound adjective. In a surprising number of cases, the compounds are common enough to be considered fixed.

Participles combined with an adverb are likely to be derived from an intransitive (object-less) verb (see 113. Verbs that cannot be Passive). Fixed combinations include deep-thinking, fast-flowing, free-wheeling, hard-working, high-achieving, long-lasting, never-ending, obstinately-persisting, quick-acting, rapidly-deteriorating, slow-growing, slowly-receding and wildly-fluctuating.

By contrast, participles combined with an adjective are likely to be derived from a complement-taking verb (see 220. Features of Complements). Fixed combinations include bitter-tasting, foul-smelling, good-looking, innocent-seeming, positive-sounding and rough-feeling.

Participles combined with a noun are likely to be derived from a transitive (object-needing) verb. Fixed combinations include all-encompassing, awe-inspiring, breath-taking, disease-carrying, fun-loving, heart-stopping, law-breaking, meat-eating, money-grabbing, pleasure-seeking, record-breaking, self-supporting, time-consuming and trouble-causing. Some of these can drop their hyphen so as to become a noun phrase (see 223. Uses of Hyphens, #4C).

Various other examples do not fit any of these patterns, e.g. self-seeking (= seeking things for oneself), highly-regarded, house-trained (= trained for house living), oven-cooked (= cooked in an oven), water-borne (= carried in water), well-known and wind-assisted (= assisted by wind).

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3. In Multi-Word Prepositions

Prepositions tend to be thought of as single words but can also be multi-word. Prepositions of two, three or even more words can be identified, though the last word will always be a familiar shorter preposition like to. Common examples are along with, according to, in front of and on the basis of.

The word according in according to is a participle. Other multi-word prepositions with one include based on, compared to, depending on, linked to and owing to. For their main uses, see 221. Multi-Word Prepositions, #3.

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4. In Multi-Word Conjunctions

Conjunction-based participles are typically followed by that. Common examples are assuming that, considering that, given that, granted that, provided that, seeing that and supposing that. A typical use might be:

(c) Given that chemical fertilisers often harm the environment, how else can crop yields be maximised?

The two verbs that sentences with a conjunction generally require are underlined. For an in-depth overview of that conjunctions, see 230. Multi-Word Conjunctions, #1.

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5. In a Starting Parenthetical Statement

Information that is not the main message of a sentence is often located at the start by means of an -ing participle and following comma. Most participles are usable in this way, but special ones do more. They tend to indicate that the main part of the sentence expresses the writer’s own belief:

(d) Speaking as economists, we have to disagree.

Such participles are usually ones of speaking or thinking. They often lack an object noun, but then need an as phrase (as economists) or adverb, e.g. honestly. Common verbs besides speaking include arguing, reasoning, thinking and writing. Two frequent verbs that need an object are considering and ignoring.

A further feature of special participles in a parenthetical statement at the start of a sentence is that they tend to be more usable there than ordinary participles when the subject of the main verb differs from their own, like inflation in the following:

(e) Speaking honestly, inflation has to be controlled.

For details of why ordinary participles often cannot be used like this, see 75. How to Avoid “Dangling” Participles.

A complete participle-based parenthetical statement often resembles what I call “communication-describing” adverbs like bluntly, which say how their user is speaking (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs #2). Indeed, some of the adverbs that can accompany speaking etc. – e.g. bluntly, clearly, frankly, honestly, plainly – are also usable alone.

Occasionally, the verb in a parenthetical statement like (d) or (e) is an infinitive (with to) rather than participle. For details, see the end of 183. Statements between Commas.

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6. With GO, COME and TAKE

These verbs can all be followed by an object-less -ing participle expressing a non-domestic leisure activity, such as boating camping, dancing, driving, fishing, hiking, hunting, riding, running, sailing, shopping, sightseeing, skiing, surfing, swimming, touring, travelling, visiting and walking.

GO and COME mean “go/come out to enjoy” (see the introduction to 290. Ways of Using COME). TAKE needs an object noun representing someone co-enjoying the activity under the supervision of the main performer, e.g. take someone swimming (see 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE, #18).

A slight problem with this usage is a few participles that seem eligible for it but are actually not, such as dining, eating, holidaying and praying (see 176. Ways of Using GO, #3).

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7. Describing a Following Noun

This general use of -ing participles becomes a more special one when the resultant noun phrase is a fixed, often idiomatic one (i.e. a collocation). Examples are:

burning desires
compelling evidence
defining moments
diminishing returns
distinguishing features
glaring omissions
helping hands
mounting debts
overwhelming urges
pressing matters
promising situations
running water
sickening regularity
sitting ducks
soaring profits
striking results
training courses
trying circumstances
winning strategies/smiles

Care is needed, in identifying such phrases, not to confuse them with identical-looking gerund-noun combinations like meeting rooms. For the difference, see 71. Gerund and Participle Uses of “-ing”.

318. “It is…” + Noun and Another Verb

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A noun is sometimes right after forward-referring “it is”, sometimes wrong and sometimes an option

FEATURES OF THIS STRUCTURE

There are various types of sentence that can start with It is… (see 190. Special Uses of “it”). They can be broadly divided into those where it refers to something obvious from previous words or the speech situation, and those where it refers forward to something mentioned later in its own sentence.

Here, the focus is on the second of these it types. What it refers forward to is a verb-based statement at the sentence end – the true subject of is:

(a) It is a challenge to maintain food supplies.

The underlined verb-based statement here is not in the starting position that is more typical of subjects because it is quite wordy, a feature that English speakers do not like at the start of a sentence. Such wordiness is typical of verb-based statements in general. The starting it is a “dummy” subject, needed to fill the space left by the transferred true subject (see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “it”).

The wording between this kind of It… and the later verb-based statement (is a challenge above) occasionally comprises a verb + object (e.g. makes sense), but is more typically a verb + complement. The verb BE (= is above) is by far the commonest complement-taking verb, but not the only one, possible alternatives including BECOME, REMAIN and SEEM. The complement is able, like complements in general, to be either a noun or a verb. As the above title indicates, it is noun complements that are of particular interest here.

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THE POTENTIAL FOR ERROR

The use of noun complements in the relevant kind of It is… sentence is complicated in two major respects. Firstly, there is the question of when a noun is able to be used. In some cases, it is the only means of expressing a particular meaning (e.g. It is a pity…); sometimes, it is not a possible means at all of doing so (e.g. It is strange…); and sometimes it is replaceable by a similarly-spelt adjective (e.g. It is a challenge/ challenging…).

The second complication is the variability of the wording directly after the noun complement, where the verb-based statement begins. In sentence (a) after challenge, there is a to verb (to maintain). Other nouns, however, may be followed by an -ing verb or by that (with an ordinary subject + verb), or by a question word.

The common feature of all these latter wording variations is that they mark the verb-based statement as a specification or identification of the general noun idea just before them. For example, to maintain… in (a) gives the exact nature of a challenge (see 117. Restating Generalizations More Specifically).

The usability of each variation depends on the choice of complement noun before it. Challenge allows to… but not that…; fact requires the reverse. Yet predicting the right choice is hampered by not just this variability but also the fact that some nouns combine with a following verb in a different way when they are outside the complement position. Placing the challenge, for example, at the start of a sentence before a specifying statement requires of -ing instead of to (The challenge of maintaining…); whereas the fact in this position still requires that.

As usual, the best way to acquire such a complicated area of knowledge is by communicating in English as much as possible. However, additional help may come from knowing some general noun meanings that seem to be associated with each option, and it is these that I wish to explore here.

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NOUN USAGE AFTER “IT IS”

It is not possible here to list all of the nouns that could follow the relevant kind of It is…, but a fairly extensive list may give some idea of what is possible:

NOUN ONLY

an achievement (to)
a bonus (to/that)
a conundrum (that/ wh-)
a disincentive (to/that)
a duty (to)
an experience (to)
a fact (that)
a failure (to)
a good question (wh-)
a joy (to)
a moot point (wh-)
a pity (that)
a priority (to)
a relief (to/that)
a requirement (to/that)
a shame (to/that)
a struggle (to)
common sense (to/that)
fun (to)
hard work (to)
standard practice (to)
time (to)

Most of these nouns owe their use, it seems, to the fact that they have no similarly-spelt adjective that could replace them without a clear meaning change. Some do actually have a similarly-spelt adjective (e.g. time/ timely, a joy/ joyous), but only one with a noticeably different meaning.

The meanings of the nouns perhaps form some distinct categories. A “good/bad” category includes bonus, failure, fun, joy, pity, pleasure, relief, shame, struggle and hard work. “Necessity” includes duty, priority and requirement. “Factual” might describe fact, common sense and standard practice. “Asking” includes conundrum, moot point and question.

NOUN OR ADJECTIVE

an advantage/ advantageous (to/that)
a burden/ burdensome (to/that)
a certainty/ certain (that)
a challenge/ challenging (to)
a consolation/ consoling (to/that)
a crime/ criminal (to/that )
a disappointment/ disappointing (that)
a disaster/ disastrous (that)
a help/ helpful (to/that)
a mystery/ mysterious (that)
a necessity/ necessary (to/that)
a novelty/ novel (to/that)
a possibility/ possible (that)
a probability/ probable (that)
#a problem/ problematic (that)
a puzzle/ puzzling (that)
a shock/ shocking (to/that)
a surprise/ surprising (to/that)
a trial/ trying (to)
the custom/ customary (to/that)
the fashion/ fashionable (to/that)
the truth/ true (that)

Pairs like these seem more numerous than nouns in the first list, which lack a derived adjective of similar-meaning. However, it should not be concluded that any adjective whose meaning and spelling exist in a corresponding noun can be replaced by it – there are plenty of such adjectives that must always be used. Often, their corresponding noun will be uncountable. Consider this:

(b) It is enjoyable to visit new places.

It would not be correct here to say an enjoyment to…. What would be possible, however, is an enjoyable experience. Other adjectives that have a noun of similar spelling and meaning without being replaceable by it include acceptable, appealing, typical, difficult, easy, futile, normal, premature, satisfying and painful.

However, some adjectives that cannot be replaced by their similarly-spelt noun after it is can actually be changed in this way in a sentence type that is practically a paraphrase of an it is sentence, namely one starting with there is. This is the case, for example, with appealing (corresponding noun = appeal). Appealing in the position of enjoyable in (b) would become appeal in a sentence like the following:

(c) There is appeal in visiting new places.

For more on this kind of correspondence, see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences, #6.

The meaning categories represented in the second list are similar to those in the first.

For further aspects of noun/ adjective alternation, see 270. Paraphrasing Adjectives with Words of Other Kinds, #1.

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WORD CHOICES AFTER THE NOUN

Most of the above nouns, it is clear, need their following verb to be introduced with to. This may be because of the kind of meaning that the verb expresses: something to be done by either the speaker or addressee or both. Consider this:

(d) It is a requirement to sign in on arrival.

Very typically, such a sentence will be telling the addressee to carry out the mentioned action. If to is replaced by that, by contrast, this would not be the case:

(e) It is a requirement that dogs are kept on a lead.

Similarly, the first sentence below refers to an action by the speaker, while the second does not:

(f) It is a relief to have completed the task.

(g) It is a relief that the bank have received payment.

Two alternatives to to and that are -ing and question words. Replacing to with -ing seems possible after “good/bad” nouns. In sentence (f), for example, to have could easily be the rare auxiliary gerund having.

The choice between to and -ing in such situations depends on how the action is viewed (what grammarians call “aspect”): to… presents actions as brief, while -ing presents them as extended – the same contrast that is possible after some adjectives outside it sentences ( see 203. Expanding an Adjective with Words after it), and after some verbs (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, #2).

Replacement of that by a question word (how, when, who etc.) is sometimes necessary when the noun before is a question-implying one like a puzzle (see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #8):

(h) It is a puzzle why nobody is around.

For more on such sentences, see 219. Wording next to Indirect Questions, #2.

316. Future Verbs without “Will” or “Shall”

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Verbs can refer to the future in various ways without “will” or “shall”

REPLACING “WILL” OR “SHALL” IN VERBS

The “future tense” (with will or shall) is by no means the only means by which a verb can be understood as referring to the future. English has a variety of alternative verb forms that become necessary in the right circumstances. Here, I wish to clarify those circumstances and to look at the particular alternative to a future tense that is associated with each.

It should be noted that most of the will/shall alternatives to be presented are verb forms. In other words, they are grammatical possibilities, not grammar-replacing vocabulary. As I have suggested elsewhere, English tense meanings cannot normally be expressed just by a neutral verb combined with a suitable non-verbal vocabulary item (cf. 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #1).

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CIRCUMSTANCES THAT RULE OUT “WILL” / “SHALL” REPLACEMENT

1. Expressing Special Types of Future Meaning

There are some types of future meaning that require a verb either to be combined with a future-suggesting other verb like going to, FACE, BE TO and BE SCHEDULED TO, or to be put into a tense other than a future one.

Going to is perhaps the most obvious alternative to will / shall. Like these words, it combines directly with the base form of a further verb. Its special meanings will not be elaborated here because they are so commonly described in mainstream grammar descriptions (though see 176. Ways of Using “Go”, #6).

Note, however, that whereas will and shall themselves carry the future meaning of a verb, going to transfers it to the verb after. Since the subsequent verb is always in the to (infinitive) form, that form can be taken as the normal grammatical alternative to will or shall in going to combinations. Going to itself can be in any tense. If it is used with will or shall (will be going to…), two separate future ideas will be involved.

Future-referring FACE is similar in meaning to going to (see 314. Words with Complicated Grammar 4, #1). Grammatically, however, it must be followed by an “action” noun object rather than an infinitive verb (e.g. …faces an uphill struggle), this still being where the future meaning is located.

Future-referring BE TO usually reports either an arrangement or a command. Consider this:

(a) All staff are to convene in the main hall at 9.00.

If an arrangement is being reported here, the occurrence of the meeting is a decision made by staff. However, if a command is being reported, the staff are not the ones who have called the meeting – they are just being told (politely) that they are required to attend (see 119. BE before a “to” Verb, #4 and #5). In both cases, it is the infinitive form of the verb after BE TO that replaces will/shall.

It would also be possible to say in (a) are scheduled to convene. This would leave it vague about who had called the meeting.

There are various types of future event or situation whose futurity is typically shown by a verb in a tense other than the future. If the event or situation is a single one and planned by someone other than the speaker, the tense is likely to be present simple or present continuous:

(b) The visitors depart (or are departing) tomorrow.

It is will in such sentences that usually suggests planning by the speaker.

By contrast, futures planned by someone other than the speaker to be repeated at predictable times are more typically indicated with the present simple:

(c) The Sociology lecture takes place this Friday.

For more about planning, see 147. Types of Future Meaning, #5.

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2. After Future-Pointing Speech/ Thought Verbs

Common speech or thought verbs that sometimes or usually accompany a verb with future reference, similarly to going to, include AIM, ANTICIPATE, ENVISAGE, EXPECT, FORECAST, FORESEE, FORETELL, GUARANTEE, HOPE, IMAGINE, INTEND, PLAN, PLEDGE, PREDICT, PROMISE, PROPHESY, SEE (= predict), SUPPOSE, SWEAR, THREATEN, UNDERTAKE, VOW and WARN.

All of these except possibly AIM and UNDERTAKE can go between a speaker subject X and that…will… (e.g. X promises that s/he will…). AIM and UNDERTAKE only allow an infinitive. For more about UNDERTAKE, see 281.Verbs with Unexpected Grammar 4, #f. For a discussion of AIM versus INTEND, see 114. Tricky Word Contrasts 3, #5.

Many of the verbs that allow that…will… also allow something else. EXPECT, HOPE, PLAN, PLEDGE, PROMISE, SWEAR, THREATEN and VOW can, in the right circumstances, freely accompany either that…will… or a to (infinitive) verb:

(d) The Government hopes that it will (or to) spend more.

The condition for the choice being free is both verbs having the same subject. If they do not (imagine it above replaced by everyone), only that…will… is possible.

ANTICIPATE, ENVISAGE and FORESEE can, when their subject is the same as that of the verb after them, freely accompany either that…will… or just an -ing verb. SEE is similar except that it needs a -self object before -ing, e.g. …sees itself spending more in (d).

Some of the verbs in the main list above allow an ordinary object to be placed directly after them. PROMISE with an object still offers a choice between to… and that…will…; EXPECT and INTEND with an object allow only to….

An object after ANTICIPATE, ENVISAGE, FORESEE, PREDICT and SEE needs a following -ing verb (see 232. Verbs with an Object + “-ing”):

(e) The Government anticipates the country spending more.

Verbs that always require any future-referring verb after them to be used with that…will… include IMAGINE (= suppose), SUPPOSE and WARN.

In all of the examples above, the future-pointing speech verb is in the active voice after its subject, the name of a speaker, and before that…will or equivalent. In an alternative usage, the speech verb is made passive and given the subject of the will verb, placed at the start of the sentence:

(f) Handwriting skills are expected to become unimportant.

As this shows, the will verb become is now in the infinitive form. A similar rearrangement is possible with all of the earlier-listed verbs except HOPE, SEE, SWEAR, UNDERTAKE, VOW and WARN. It always requires the future-referring verb to be an infinitive regardless of its time reference (see 299. Infinitives after a Passive Verb, #2).

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3. After Likelihood Adjectives

A very similar usage to that illustrated in (f) is with a likelihood adjective instead of an -ed participle between BE and an infinitive – for example likely instead of expected. Besides likely, the possibilities include able, bound, certain, destined, due, guaranteed, poised, prepared, ready and sure. For details of certain used in this way, see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #2).

Similar to these adjectives is about, an indicator that the future action expressed by a following infinitive verb is very imminent (see 269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #6). An even more imminent occurrence can be expressed either by adding just before about, or by replacing both about and its following infinitive with on the + brink / point / verge (+ of -ing), or with close to -ing.

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4. After Certain Conjunctions

The need to put a future-referring verb after if into a present rather than future tense is routinely covered in elementary English courses and is thus unlikely to be news to readers of this blog. Most such courses also mention a similar possibility after time conjunctions (after, as, as soon as, before, once, when, until):

(g) Problems will be encountered until repairs are complete.

However, these courses do not always mention that will is usable after some of these conjunctions to express a special meaning. A common parenthetical expression in American English is if you will, meaning “If I can express it like this”. Elsewhere after if, the meaning of either “agree” or “insist” is conveyed:

(h) The research will succeed if the participants will (= agree to) cooperate.

(i) Funds will remain low if staff will use (= insist on using) taxis.

After when, a future form commonly indicates a consequence:

(j) Click on the image, when a bell will ring.

This means the bell rings after the image is highlighted – when means “and then”. Compare this with the way the present-tense rings after when (with no preceding comma) gives it its more standard meaning of “after” or “while”. The will use can only end a sentence; the standard one can start or end one (see 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #4).

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5. After Future-Referring Urging Words

To urge is to put verbal pressure on someone (without commanding them) to behave in a particular way (see 195. Tricky Word Contrasts 7, #1). Words representing some form or another of this idea can be a verb (e.g. URGE) or a noun (e.g. a request) or an adjective (e.g. insistent).

An urged future behaviour can be indicated after a word of this kind by means of that and a future-referring verb in either the present simple tense or the “subjunctive mood”. Subjunctive verbs do not show tense and have only one form – identical to infinitives without to. Their usability after urging words is because they tend to be associated with futures that may never happen:

(k) Doctors recommend that everyone be vaccinated (or is vaccinated).

Common words like recommend include:

VERBS: ADVISE, ASK, BEG, DEMAND, DESIRE, INSIST, PREFER, PROPOSE, RECOMMEND, REQUEST, REQUIRE, SUGGEST, URGE (note that some urging verbs cannot be used like RECOMMEND, especially CALL FOR, ENCOURAGE, NEED, WANT and WISH).

NOUNS: advice, demand, desire, determination, insistence, keenness, preference, proposal, recommendation, request, requirement, suggestion, willingness, wish

ADJECTIVES: adamant, advisable, anxious, crucial, desirable, determined, eager, essential, impatient, important, insistent, keen, necessary, preferable, reluctant, vital, willing.

For more about English subjunctives, see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #6.

315. Ways of Using SEE

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The grammar and meanings of SEE are extremely varied

THE COMPLEXITY OF see

Small common verbs tend in any language to have an extensive variety of meanings and uses that makes them difficult to master quickly. Here, the variety of the verb SEE is given detailed consideration, with especial attention paid to usage that is idiomatic and/or very capable of occurring in formal writing. Although this is unlikely to provide instant mastery of the verb (see 202. Some Strategies for Learning English, “Practice Strategies”), it may reduce the time taken.

Of course, dictionaries too provide extensive information about small common verbs. My thinking in doing the same here is that dictionaries’ need to save space can make their explanations and illustrations frustratingly brief and therefore harder to appreciate and remember. In these pages, there is the benefit of not just extra space, but also the potential to link to further explanation elsewhere. Sometimes, there may even be an insight that dictionaries have overlooked.

Other small verbs that are similarly analysed in this blog are HAVE,  MAKE,  GO,  DO,  GIVE,  TAKE and COME.

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USAGE WITH JUST A SUBJECT

It is not common for SEE to be used in the active voice without an object. Where this is possible, the meaning is usually either the fundamental “perceive with the eyes” or its metaphorical derivative “understand” (see 7. Metaphorical Meanings).

SEE with the first meaning still mainly requires a mention of what the eyes see – the object of the perception. As with most object-indicating verbs in English, this requirement exists even when the nature of the object is obvious from the preceding words or the speech situation. In such cases, the object will normally be a pronoun like them or something:

(a) Searching for micro-organisms, Pasteur eventually saw them.

An absent object after SEE with the basic eye-perception meaning is most likely when the additional meaning of ability is present. In such cases, can is often present too:

(b) I (can) see but I don’t hear.

Even here, however, an object can often be added after SEE, for example things. This suggests that SEE used as in (b) is a kind of verb that I have elsewhere called “object-dropping” (see 8. Object-Dropping Errors). Note that not all noun expressions after it are objects: some, such as a short distance or some way, have an adverb function instead.

SEE meaning “understand” seems slightly more able to be used without an object. As such, it usually seems to involve the further meaning of “accept” or “recognise”. For a special use after as, see 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #4. SEE meaning “understand” without an object is again probably object-dropping rather than truly object-less (“intransitive”).

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USAGE WITH AN OBJECT

The perception and understanding meanings remain common when SEE has an object. There are various object types, each tending to suggest a particular additional meaning. Common extended meanings are:

1. Appreciate

Here, “understand” combines with “recognise the importance of”. A writer might say they see the problem. A typical conversational use is:

(c) I see what you are saying.

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2. Refer to/Consult

The extra suggestion here is of transferring attention, usually temporarily, from a primary object of interest to a secondary one, often in order to increase understanding of the former, or credence in it. SEE with this meaning is often in the imperative form (see 128. Imperative Verbs in Formal Writing, #4).

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3. Imagine/Visualise

Here, the object of SEE is clearly understood not to currently exist. It might be a fantasy, a fear, a desire, or a prediction (like objects of FORESEE). Sometimes, before or after the object, one hears the phrase in my (or similar, e.g. their) mind’s eye.

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4. Interpret

To interpret is to extract meaning from something perceived, such as a sight, sound, utterance, idea or situation. SEE with this meaning is often accompanied by an adverbial manner expression. Someone might say How do you see it? or X sees it differently. An adverbial as… before …X sees it is a common way of signalling that X’s interpretation follows next (see 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #4).

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5. Subjectively Perceive

If somebody says they see problems in a plan, they leave open the possibility that no problems really exist at all – that the observation is just an opinion. A verb suggesting perception of something that more definitely exists is RECOGNISE.

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6. Recognise

SEE may acquire this meaning if its object has the (or other particularizing word) instead of a(n) or a “zero” article. Someone looking at a crowd photo, for example, might say they see their brother. There may sometimes be difficulty separating “recognition” from the “appreciate” meaning above (#1).

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7. Experience

With this meaning, the object of SEE is typically an event, often expressed as an “action” noun (see 131. Uses of “Action” Nouns), e.g.:

(d) The country has seen exceptional growth.

Here, SEE resembles EXPERIENCE in expressing the passive-like meaning of being affected by the action of the object (see 21. Active Verbs with Non-Active Meanings, penultimate section). Literal perception could be involved, but it could also be absent, leaving a more metaphorical use.

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8. Witness

The object of SEE with this meaning is likely to be an occurrence worth reporting to other people, such as a crime or solar eclipse. There is a similarity to the “experience” meaning above, but more neutrality about whether or not the occurrence actually affected the reporter. More emphasis, in other words, is placed on the perception element.

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9. Meet

Both accidental and arranged encounters – mostly of the one-to-one kind – can be represented by SEE. The latter also tend to involve the idea of “consult”. Typical statements might be that someone saw a friend or has seen a doctor.

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10. Other

In everyday usage, SEE with a visual entertainment object like a film means “watch in full”, and in continuous tenses with a human object means “meet regularly to pursue romance”.

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OTHER USAGE

11. + Object + “as” or “to be”

SEE here means “believe” or “consider” but, unlike with the “subjectively perceive” meaning (#5 above), the belief is carried by the as or to be part rather than the object:

(e) Some language teachers see targeted production practice as (or to be) a waste of time.

Grammatically speaking, an as phrase in such sentences is an “object complement”. As seems freely replaceable by to be, just as it is when introducing an object complement of many (but not all) other belief verbs (see 92. Verbs with an Object + “as”).

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12. + “that”

An object of SEE is sometimes a statement starting with a conjunction use of that. SEE varies in meaning according to what follows that. With a simple sight or factual observation after that, SEE means “observe”:

(f) The company saw that sales were falling.

This kind of meaning probably exists within the conjunction seeing that, an introducer of an accepted point (see 230. Multi-Word Conjunctions, #1).

By contrast, with information of a less physically visible kind after that, SEE is a “thought” verb meaning “recognise”:

(g) The company sees that more funding is required.

In the right context, both (f) and (g) could be understood as reported speech.

A very different meaning of SEE that… is “ensure”:

(h) Anticipating a long campaign, Caesar saw that his troops had plenty of supplies.

Here, the object of SEE represents a subsequent result of the seeing rather than anything simultaneous. The use is especially likely within instructions (see 128. Imperative verbs in Formal Writing, #3).

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13. + Object + “-ing”

This is another combination with strikingly different meanings. A statement that economists see prices rising means either that they observe prices to be rising, or that they predict it. Only context can show which is meant.

The “observe” meaning of SEE before an object + -ing closely resembles the “observe” meaning of SEE before that, as in sentence (f). If there is a difference, it is perhaps that that… suggests the observation as a fact worth noting, rather than just a simple occurrence.

For more about the “predict” meaning, see 316. Future Verbs without “Will” or “Shall”, #2.

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14. + Object + “Bare” Infinitive

SEE is one of various perception verbs whose object can be followed by a base-form verb – actually an infinitive (to verb) without the to (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, #2). The base form after an object makes a meaning contrast with the -ing form there that is described in #13: whereas -ing suggests the verb’s occurrence is ongoing, base forms present it as completed. For the special use of see … be versus see … being, see 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1, #6.

The above contrast is also possible with the passive form of SEE (with the object as subject). Usually, however, the infinitive then needs to (prices are seen to rise).

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15. + Indirect Question

Verbs before an indirect question word (if, whether, how, who etc.) are usually “asking”, “explaining” or “knowing” (see 150. Verb Choices with Reported Speech, #2). SEE is commonly an “asking” verb meaning “investigate”:

(i) Use litmus paper to see if the liquid is acidic.

However, sometimes SEE is more “explaining” than “asking”, with the meaning of “observe”. This can happen before any of the question words except if and whether, with how being particularly likely:

(j) See how demand jumps during the summer.

Using how draws attention to something already visible, rather as with NOTE and NOTICE (see 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #5).

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16. + Object + Directional Preposition

Movement-suggesting prepositions – to, into, from, out of, through etc. – tend, when following an object of SEE, to make SEE mean “escort”. Thus, seeing someone out of a building means accompanying them as far as the exit.

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17. In Multi-Word Verbs

Some verb-preposition combinations work so closely together that they are best considered single object-requiring “prepositional” verbs (see 44. Troublesome Prepositional Verbs). Common SEE examples include SEE ABOUT… (= deal with), SEE INTO the future (= predict), SEE TO… (= attend to) and SEE THROUGH… (= recognise deception in).

Similar to prepositional verbs are “phrasal” ones, where the verb accompanies a preposition-like adverb (see 139. Phrasal Verbs), sometimes with no object. Common SEE ones are SEE … IN/OUT (= escort inside/outside), SEE … THROUGH (= manage till the end) and SEE … OFF (= successfully resist or help to depart).

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18. In Other Fixed Expressions

The following are common:

Seeing is believing (see 71. Gerund and Participle Uses of “-ing”, #2)
Let me see = …think about it
See red = become very angry (see 278. Colours, #4).
See the back of = end of
see-through = transparent

313. Adverbs Linked Closely to a Noun

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Most adverbs cannot associate with a noun, but a few can

ADVERB ROLES IN ENGLISH SENTENCES

Adverbs are usually said to modify, or refine, a particular type of information in a sentence. In contrast to adjectives, which typically refine noun or pronoun information, adverbs are mostly associated with a verb or an adjective or another adverb or an entire statement. Elsewhere within this blog, it is suggested that adverbs can also modify the meaning of a preposition (see 262. Adverbs that Describe a Preposition).

In view of all this, a reasonable generalization would seem to be that adverbs can add information about practically anything in a sentence except nouns or their equivalents. Yet, as the above title indicates, that is not the case. In this post I wish to examine how adverbs can say something about a noun. Not every adverb has this capability, but that is not really surprising when the same thing could be said about every other adverb capability (see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs, #2).

The total number of adverbs that can add information about a noun is not large, but it is perhaps greater than one would expect (and greater than implied by the rare illustrations that I have found in grammar books). My specific objectives here are to identify as many of the possibilities as possible, and to illustrate them copiously.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF NOUN-FOCUSSED ADVERBS

Noun-focussed adverbs tend, not surprisingly, to be located just before their noun. The problem is that adverbs before a noun are not always closely associated with it. Consider this:

(a) Obviously, water is not an infinite resource.

The adverb obviously here is saying something about the message of the entire sentence rather than just about water. This is recognizable from the fact that it can occupy a grammatical position elsewhere in the sentence, such as just before the verb is, without a change of meaning. The comma after obviously is also a clue, since sentence-starting adverbs with a following comma tend in general to be sentence-related (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs).

Here is an example of a starting adverb that does link only with the noun after it:

(b) Quite a mess was left behind.

The close association of quite here with a mess is easier to see if the entire phrase is placed in the object position after a suitable verb:

(c) Workers left quite a mess behind.

If quite was being used here in the ordinary adverb way, its position between the verb and its object a mess would probably not be correct because ordinary adverbs are in general unlikely to be correct there (see 120. Six Things to Know about Adverbs, #3). However, quite fits naturally into this position.

Contrast the use of quite in (c) with that of the manner adverb deliberately. That would have to go at the start or end of the sentence, or just before the verb left.

Slightly trickier to judge are adverbs before a noun in the “complement” position after a verb like BE. In the following example, could clearly be considered noun-focussed?

(d) The scale of the project was clearly a challenge.

There is no punctuation rule that could give assistance here, and meaning does not help: clearly appears to be as plausibly modifying the verb was as the complement a challenge.

A way forward in this case, perhaps, is to see how the sentence reads with the adverb placed before rather than after BE: …clearly was a challenge above. The change is obviously not a problem with clearly, but with quite it seems more of one:

(e) ?The scale of the project quite was a challenge.

Another problematic sentence type is where a starting adverb + noun are followed by a comma:

(f) Clearly a challenge, the scale of the project had to be reduced.

However, I take such sentence starts to be just a modified form of the complement usage shown in (d). This is because being can be added before the adverb without affecting the grammaticality or meaning of the sentence.

Sometimes, an adverb precedes a noun within a preposition phrase, e.g. in especially the sea. I discount this usage too, the reason being that the adverb can usually be repositioned before the preposition without a meaning change, thus suggesting that the modification is of the whole phrase rather than just the noun within it.

Finally, various adverbs can precede a noun placed directly after another noun within an “apposition” construction (see 77. Apposition, #1):

(g) The next planet out from the sun, obviously Mars, may provide evidence of alien life.

I would not take obviously here to be focussed on just the noun Mars. Again, it seems to be a variant of the complement usage since which could comfortably go before it, with is placed either before or after.

However, the adverb namely seems different – less natural-sounding with which is – and will be included. Other adverbs that seem like it are especially notably, particularly and specifically.

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MEANINGS OF NOUN-FOCUSSED ADVERBS

1. Degree Adverbs

Degree adverbs typically modify adjectives or other adverbs (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much). The main ones that seem able to modify a noun (usually a countable one with a) are quite and rather. Quite with nouns seems the more widely usable. Its meaning varies less than with adjectives and adverbs (see 231. Confusions of Similar Structures 3, #2), being more typically “completely” than “moderately”. Rather, by contrast, does mean “moderately”, but it tends to be restricted to negative-sounding nouns like a fool, or a mess in sentence (c) above.

Some grammar books also mention back-referring such (= “at the recognised high level”), as in:

(h) Nobody could accept such a (radical) suggestion.

An adverb (as opposed to adjective) nature of such in this use is perhaps hinted at by the frequent implication of a following adjective that, like radical, conveys the main description of the noun.

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2. Inclusion Adverbs

Two fundamental inclusion meanings are “excluding all others” – most typically expressed by only (see 251. The Grammar of “Only”) – and “surprisingly included” – usually shown by even. Both words easily meet the sentence-position requirements. They may begin like this:

(i) Only/Even children may use this facility.

The adverbs are associated here with the noun children, not with the later use this facility: the sentence is not naming the single or extra thing that children may do. The noun association can be present even with the adverbs after rather than before their noun.

If children were in the object position (e.g. after We accept…), the placement of only/even before it would not sound strange (though placement after it would again be possible too).

Of the various synonyms of only, just and solely seem usable like it, whereas exclusively and purely do not. To me, these latter sound unlikely at the start of a sentence and unusual just before an object. They seem to fit much better before prepositions and conjunctions (exclusively in summer, purely when the sun shines).

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3. Highlighters

Especially, notably and particularly say that their noun deserves more attention than others in the same class (see 54. Sentence Lists 1: incidental). Their use with nouns seems mostly to be in apposition constructions, where there is another noun just before:

(j) Some parts of the solar system, especially Mars, may provide evidence of alien life.

Usage outside of apposition constructions, for example with a sentence-starting noun like children in (i), seems possible with especially and particularly, but rare and usually with the noun before rather than after them (Children especially…). A possible reason for the rarity may be a danger of a double meaning – difficulty deciding whether the adverb modifies the noun or the whole sentence. One way to more clearly show linkage with a starting noun is to use in particular (without commas) after it instead.

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4. Precision Adverbs

Various adverbs are usable before a quantity noun to show how exact it is, as in exactly a kilogram, approximately a litre and easily a megabyte. Other relevant adverbs include almost, at least, nearly, perhaps, practically, precisely, probably, roughly and virtually (see 95. Making Statements More Uncertain 1, #1).

However, all the adverbs in this category may be less definitely noun modifiers than the kinds in preceding sections. It is arguable that they actually modify not the noun after them but the article a(n) before it. They are not usable if the same nouns are made plural, with a(n) absent. Plural nouns after them usually need a number in between (e.g. almost 3 kg.). Given that a(n) is sometimes an alternative to the number one (see 263. Uses of “One” and “Ones”, #2), it is difficult not to conclude that this meaning is what the adverbs are modifying.

The standard negative adverb not, which similarly modifies nouns only when they have a(n) (e.g. Not a word was spoken), may be discounted for the same reasons (see 310. Aspects of Negation, #1).

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5. Name Indicators

The adverbs namely and specifically can introduce a name-informing noun placed along with them between two commas or equivalent as the second half of an apposition construction:

(k) One era of the dinosaurs, namely / specifically the Cretaceous, was the time of Tyrannosaurus.

Namely is always usable in such sentences, whereas specifically is only possible when the noun before it is indefinite, usually with a(n) or one (see the end of 206. Ways of Conveying a Name).

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6. Superficiality Adverbs

Apparently, ostensibly, seemingly and superficially placed before a pronoun with any- (anybody, anyone, anything) or every- or no- can be understood as modifying it:

(l)  The villagers had apparently nothing to do.

This usage seems possible with the pronoun used as either a subject or an object or an object of a preposition.

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7. Negatives

The adverbs barely, hardly and scarcely seem as questionably able as not to modify a noun (see #4 above). However, they do seem more able to modify pronouns with any-:

(m) Hardly anyone disputes the need for action.

312. Grammar Command Test 3 (Rewriting)

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Take a short test to measure and increase command of grammar points explained elsewhere in this blog

DESCRIPTION OF THE TEST

This post offers a different kind of test from that in the two earlier Guinlist posts with a title like the above (see 138. Grammar Command Test 1). It presents isolated single or paired sentences and invites rephrasing of each using given wording. Rephrasing involves one or more grammar points from elsewhere within this blog, which are revealed and explained when answers are given.

As the other grammar-testing posts point out, the word “command” better describes the aim of grammar activities than “knowledge” because it suggests, in addition to knowledge of grammar rules, skill in their use. Knowledge alone of grammar rules in a new language is known to be insufficient for avoiding errors from the fact that most people who spend a lot of time and energy acquiring it through memorisation still often make mistakes in real communication (see 202. Some Strategies for Learning English).

Tests that use “rewrite sentences” are not a perfect way of proving command of grammar, but they do seem to have some value in this respect. They also have the value of practising the right way to perform the key skill of paraphrase (see 80. How to Paraphrase).

For a test of appropriacy rather than grammar, see 193. A Test of Formal Language Use. For one of vocabulary, see 273. Verb-Object Collocations.

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THE TEST SENTENCES

How can each highlighted statement below be rephrased so as to accommodate the wording shown next to it? Answers are in the next section.

(a) Kilimanjaro is the highest mountain in Africa.

Kilimanjaro is higher…

(b) Computers are located on the upper floor.

The floor…

(c) Industry pollutes in many ways.  For example, it discharges effluents.

…such as…

(d) It is not very difficult for cats to climb trees.

Cats do not…

(e) Granite outlasts most other stones.

The durability…is…

(f) Some argue that even electric vehicles cause pollution.

…are argued…

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ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS

(a) Kilimanjaro is the highest mountain in Africa.

⇒ Kilimanjaro is higher than any other mountain in Africa.

Use in the original sentence of a superlative adjective (highest) indicates that the noun it describes (Kilimanjaro) is being compared with more than one fellow members of its category, mountains in Africa (see the introduction to 305. Wording next to Superlatives). Higher, by contrast, indicates a comparison with just one.

The task, therefore, is to find an expression that allows a comparison with just one idea within the same category rather than a group. This is done above by adding any before mountain, but it could instead be done with all (+ plural mountains).

The word other is a further important addition: without it, there is a suggestion that African mountains exclude Kilimanjaro – that the latter might be in Asia or America, for example, or even be a high building rather than a mountain. Other is not needed in the original sentence because the status of Kilimanjaro as a mountain in Africa is more clearly shown there by is in between (see 220. Features of Complements, #1). For more about other as a category indicator, see 170. Logical Errors in Written English, #4.

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(b) Computers are located on the upper floor.

⇒ The floor where computers are located is the upper one.

In the original sentence, the adjective upper is just before its noun floor. Starting with the floor, however, requires upper to come later, with a link verb like BE in between (see 283. Lesser-Known Features of Adjectives).

The link verb here, added alongside the existing one are located, is is. The result of this addition, the presence of two verbs together in the same sentence, creates a need for special verb-accommodating wording that I have elsewhere called a “joining device” (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). The joining device above is the conjunction where. One could also say The floor containing computers…, where the joining device -ing is attached to a suitable verb without BE in front.

A third possibility is to paraphrase the original verb are located with wording that includes no verb at all, so that all need for a joining device is removed. A simple way to do this is with a preposition phrase (The floor with computers is…).

A second consequence of starting with the floor is a need for the…one with upper. Although, most adjectives can be placed after BE without needing extra words, upper always needs one or ones after it (or kind if describing an uncountable noun). For more about adjectives with this need, see 184. Adjectives with Limited Mobility, especially #4.

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(c) Industry pollutes in many ways. For example, it discharges effluents.

⇒ Industry pollutes in many ways, such as by discharging effluents.

Here, an illustration is worded in two different ways. The idea of “illustration” is indicated first by for example and subsequently by such as. Moreover, for example is in a new sentence after its associated generalization whereas such as is not.

The reason for this latter difference is the grammatical properties of the two expressions. For example is being used as a “connector”, an expression that shows a meaning link between two verb-based statements without combining them physically into a single sentence; whereas such as is a preposition, only able to show a meaning link between nouns inside a single sentence (see 1. Simple Example-Giving).

The preposition status of such as creates a further restriction too: any verb after it needs the -ing (gerund) form rather than a tense-showing form like discharges in the original sentence (see 70. Gerunds, #2). In the above example, discharging also needs by in front. This is because such as is introducing an adverb-like phrase saying how the action of the verb in its sentence (pollutes) occurs (see 73. Prepositions for Saying How).

One other point about for for example is that it is much less restricted than such as. Although such as cannot be used like for example in the original sentence, for example could easily replace such as in the rephrasing. In other words, for example has both a connector and a preposition use (see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #4).

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(d) It is not very difficult for cats to climb trees.

⇒ Cats do not find it (to be) very difficult to climb trees.
⇒ Cats do not have much difficulty (with) climbing trees.

Placing cats, the subject of the infinitive verb to climb, before the idea of “difficult” necessitates the use of a verb that can logically and typically link the two. One is find, as in the first rephrasing; the other is have, as in the second. With both, the not originally negating very difficult has to negate them instead.

Cats do not find… requires most of (d) to follow as an object. The starting it can be kept, either between that…is or without these words and optionally followed by to be. Next comes very difficult (without not because that is now at the start), followed by to climb trees (without for cats). For more on converting it sentences into the object of another verb, see 190. Special Uses of “it”, #2.

Using have, by contrast, requires the removal of it and use of the noun difficulty (as the object of have) instead of the adjective difficult. This change necessitates two others: adjective-requiring very before difficult must become noun-allowing much before difficulty; and the verb to climb must become climbing, optionally after with.

It may seem strange that a verb after difficulty should require a different form from one after difficult. There are indeed plenty of examples where a to verb is needed both times (e.g. after able/ ability, free/ freedom and willing/ willingness. However, it is surprisingly common for a noun and its related adjective to require different forms of the same dependent verb, other examples being possible (+ to) versus possibility (+ of…) and useful (+ to) versus usefulness (+ of…) (see 78. Infinitive versus Preposition after Nouns).

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(e) Granite outlasts most other stones.

⇒ The durability of granite is better than that of most other stones.

The prefix out– in verbs usually means “better than” (see 146. Some Important Prefix Types, #3). Thus, the verb outlasts means “lasts better (= longer) than”. Its subject and compulsory object name the two compared ideas.

If the idea of lasting is expressed with a starting noun (durability), that becomes the focus of the comparison, so that two types of durability are being compared rather than two stone types. Each type is indicated by words after durability: of granite in the first case, of most other stones in the second. To avoid repetitiveness, the second use of durability can be replaced by the pronoun that (see 63. Constraints on Using “the one(s)).

The idea of “better than” after durability can be expressed with either an adjective like better (+ than) or the preposition beyond (without than). Their association with durability is best shown by means of a link verb like BE (is above).

Using a verb like outlasts in (e) illustrates how ordinary vocabulary can quite often replace a grammar structure expressing a particular meaning (here -er than in comparisons: see 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #8).

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(f) Some argue that even electric vehicles cause pollution.

⇒ Even electric vehicles are argued by some to cause pollution.

Sentence (f) reports a statement in the common manner by placing it after a mention of its source (some) followed by a reporting verb (argue) + that…. In the rephrasing, by contrast, the passive form of the reporting verb has as its subject the wording that was originally the subject of the verb in the reported statement (electric vehicles).

This change necessitates putting the replaced subject (some) into a by phrase after argued, and giving the verb in the reported statement the to (infinitive) form (to cause). Such rephrasing is quite commonly possible with verbs that report statements with that (see 299. Infinitives after a Passive Verb, #2).

The meaning of by some in the rephrasing could alternatively be expressed with the adverb sometimes, positioned either in the same place or at the start of the sentence.

311. Exotic Grammar Structures 9

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Some English grammar structures are unlikely to be described in language coursebooks

THE NATURE OF “EXOTIC” STRUCTURES

English has surprisingly many grammar structures that are not commonly found in language coursebooks, so that they could be called “exotic”. Some structures are of this kind because they have not been clearly identified by grammarians. Many others, though, are ignored by course designers because they are rare. There is usually insufficient space to cover the whole of English grammar, and the more common structures are preferred in the belief that this will give learners the greatest chance of success in future communication.

However, structures that are not commonly found in language-learning coursebooks can still be useful to know, especially for English users with a more advanced competence, who are the target audience of this blog. It is in this belief that posts like the present one are offered. Five exotic structures feature below. To access the other posts, see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1.

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STRUCTURE LIST

1. Just When

EXAMPLES

(a) Just when the economy was recovering, bad weather destroyed the harvest.

(b) The survivors were rescued just when the weather deteriorated.

Just when is understandable in two very different ways, depending on what the rest of its sentence says. The more basic meaning – not present above – is just that of an ordinary when combined with just meaning “precisely”, like this:

(c) The eggs were photographed just when the chicks were hatching.

The words after just when in such sentences typically mention a rare brief occurrence located somewhere within a long time period: most people who look at eggs fail to see them hatching.

On the other hand, just when in sentences like (a) and (b) helps to make a contrast between good and bad. In (a), a good event is named after just when, with a bad one named in the rest of the sentence, while in (b) the reverse happens. The position of the part with just when is not a factor here: it could be first or second in both (a) and (b).

Indicating a contrast, however, is only part of what just when does in sentences like (a) and (b). In addition, it associates the event in the other half of its sentence with either disappointment or relief. In (a), where the event in the other half (…destroyed the harvest) is disastrous, there is a suggestion of disappointment given the good situation in the just when part; in (b), a happy event in the other half (The survivors were rescued…) is suggested to be a relief in view of the threatening just when occurrence.

I would suggest that just when in (a) and (b) is not simply just + when, but is rather a single “multi-word” conjunction (see 230.  Multi-Word Conjunctions).

 

2. Complement Starting a Relative Clause

EXAMPLE

(d) Socrates, philosopher that he was, had a keen interest in words.

The underlined words here include the relative pronoun that within a statement comprising a subject pronoun (he), verb (was) and subject-describing complement (philosopher). This latter is located at the start rather than the end – a rare but not impossible complement position (see 220. Features of Complements, #6).

Two other noticeable points are firstly the position of the relative pronoun after the complement philosopher – unusual because relative pronouns do not normally go inside the statement that they belong to – and secondly the lack before philosopher (a countable noun) of the expected article a. The relative pronoun is always that.

A more typical wording of the underlined part of (d) would be who was a philosopher. However, this would change the meaning. One difference is the degree of familiarity that the reader is implied to have with the information involved: the wording in (d) implies that the reader already knows Socrates was a philosopher, while the alternative implies the opposite and would hence be providing that information along with the main point being made.

The other meaning difference is that the underlined information in (d) is clearly marked as a hardly surprising cause of the main information. There is not much surprise because the consequence is a predictable result of the cause – having an interest in words is typical of philosophers.

How might the following sentences be made like (d)?

(e) The diesel engine, which is a polluter, will soon be phased out.

(f) Most shoppers, who are bargain-seekers, look first at commodity prices.

The respective rewordings are polluter that it is and bargain-seekers that they are.

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3. “At” + Possessive + Superlative Adjective

EXAMPLE

(g) Markets are at their busiest in summer.

Superlative adjectives (with -est or most) express a difference between the noun idea that are they are describing (markets above) and either multiple noun ideas of a similar kind (e.g. shops, websites and even other markets) or the same noun idea in multiple different situations (e.g. in spring and autumn rather than in summer).

In many cases, readers can make the right choice between these two possibilities on the basis of logic or a linguistic clue or both. A major linguistic clue to a comparison with similar noun ideas is their mention in the previous sentence(s). A fairly reliable linguistic clue to the other kind of comparison is absence of the between a link verb like BE and the superlative adjective – saying, for example, Markets are busiest… in (g) (see 305. Wording next to Superlatives, #2).

However, the use of the is a clue that can be quite easily missed, and the inability of the to be dropped when it is not after BE (as in The busiest markets are…) neutralises the clue altogether. Placing the superlative after at + possessive – at their busiest above – is a clear way of indicating that something is being compared with itself at different times, regardless of the superlative’s position. Without a separating BE, the at phrase would directly  follow its noun (markets at their busiest); otherwise, it would follow BE (…are at their busiest).

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4. “Much as”

EXAMPLES

(h) Prepositions can introduce adverbial information, much as conjunctions do.

(i) Much as the world has changed, people behave the same.

As in these sentences introduces information that the reader is assumed to know already. In (h), conjunctions after it is aimed at clarifying a statement about something similar, prepositions (see 159. Exotic Grammar Structures 2, #1). As means “in the same way as”. In (i), the state of the world is associated with an unexpected outcome: as means “although”.

These differences affect the adverb much. In (h), it relates to all of the subsequent as statement, similarly to “sentence” adverbs (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs). It could without much meaning change be replaced by exactly. In (i), however, much relates more closely to the following verb (has changed). It is not logically replaceable by exactly, but means “greatly”.

Much cannot follow as. However, sentences like (i) allow though instead of as, and then much can go either before it or with the later verb (see 228. Exotic Grammar Structures 5, #5).

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5. Separated Subject of a Cited Statement

EXAMPLE

(j) Hydrogen is held (by X) to be the likeliest future means of powering motor vehicles.

Citing a statement in this way is an alternative to doing so with that (X holds that hydrogen is….), which English coursebooks tend to present as standard. In this alternative method, the citation verb (is held) is in the passive voice, and the source of the cited statement (X) is mentioned, if necessary, after a subsequent by. The subject of the cited statement (hydrogen) then takes over as the subject of the citation verb, with its original verb put into the to (infinitive) form (to be above instead of is).

The value of this sort of structure is that it enables the subject of a cited statement to begin the sentence in situations where that is desirable. A common such situation is where the idea represented by the subject noun has been mentioned just before, so that it has become familiar to the addressee – a feature that English speakers typically feel most naturally fits the start of a sentence (see 156. Mentioning what the Reader Knows Already, #10).

English has numerous verbs that can introduce a cited statement. However, not all of them can be used as in sentence (j). Those that can tend to be also usable with that. Further examples are ARGUE, BELIEVE, CONSIDER, DENY, INDICATE, REPORT, SAY and THINK. Various other verbs, however, can make sentences very like (j), differing only in requiring as instead of to be. Examples are CATEGORISE, CRITICISE, DEFINE, DESCRIBE, HIGHLIGHT, IMAGINE, REJECT, TREAT and VIEW. For more examples in both categories, see 299. Infinitives after a Passive Verb.

Citation verbs that would be difficult to fit into a sentence like (j) include BLAME, COMPLAIN, PROMISE (+ action), REFUSE (+ action) and REFUTE.

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6. Adverbial Noun Phrase with Causal Meaning

EXAMPLE

(k) The people in charge, the operation was bound to fail.

The underlined noun phrase here must have an adverbial role because it is not in a normal noun position (within or forming the subject, object or complement of a verb, and with no preposition before it). Such usage is not often grammatical – only special meanings allow it. A familiar one elsewhere is time-point expressions like last week and the day after tomorrow. The special meaning here is causal. There is, indeed, the possibility of adding because of at the start.

Only special nouns can be used in a sentence like (k). They seem to mostly correspond to question words. People, for example, corresponds to who. If the underlined words above were replaced by the way it was managed, the correspondence would be to how; The time it took would correspond to how long; The money it cost implies how much. For lists of nouns corresponding to question words, see 185. Noun Synonyms of Question Words.

The start of a sentence seems the most typical position of such causal noun phrases, but the end is often possible too (only the people in charge seems an unlikely mover among the examples above).

310. Aspects of Negation

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The idea of “not” can take numerous forms and affect nearby wording in various ways

THE CHALLENGE OF ENGLISH NEGATION

This post examines different ways of saying “not”, plus their grammatical impacts on surrounding words. Of course, both areas are common in English language coursebooks at both elementary and higher levels, and might thus seem strange in a blog seeking to avoid mainstream topics. My interest is particularly in aspects that often seem to be ignored, under-emphasised or insufficiently explored. I cannot promise to cover all of the gaps, but hopefully some at least of the ideas will prove illuminating.

Some aspects of negation that I consider worth mentioning are actually absent here because they are examined in other posts. The variety, uses and challenges of double negatives are the topic of 9. Reading Obstacles 5. Words that express negative meaning without indicating this in their spelling feature in 13. Hidden Negatives and 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #4. Word parts that mean “not” are listed in 146. Some Important Prefix Types. Correct and incorrect ways of answering negative questions appear in 297. Types of Response to a Question, #2.

Also absent here is consideration of “negative connotation” in words like questionable and interruption. It is less relevant because it involves a different meaning of “negative”: more like “bad” than “non-existent” (see 16. Ways of Distinguishing Similar Words, #2).

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ALTERNATIVE WAYS OF SAYING “NOT”

1. “No”

This familiar alternative to not is used before nouns and comparative adjectives. With nouns, it is a “determiner” (see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”), with adjectives an adverb (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much). The exact uses are:

WITH VERBS: no is not possible.

BEFORE UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS (e.g. no money): no mostly replaces not any at the start of a sentence, but elsewhere is an optional alternative to it, though slightly more formal or emphatic. For example, …found no money emphasizes the absence of money more than …did not find any money. Note how any always follows not – *no any is an impossible combination.

BEFORE COUNTABLE NOUNS (e.g. no idea): at the start of a sentence, no usually replaces not any and is usually preferred to not a(n). Elsewhere, it is an optional but slightly more formal or emphatic alternative to both not any and not a(n). Before complement nouns, it sometimes suggests inadequacy (…is no hero).

BEFORE BASE-FORM AND SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES: no cannot replace not except (optionally) before different and good.

BEFORE COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES (e.g. no easier, no more difficult): no can optionally replace not, but implies “not to any extent” or “not in any way”.

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2.  Pronouns

Negative pronouns include few (= not sufficiently many), little (= not sufficiently much), nobody / no-one (= not anyone), none (= not one) and nothing (= not anything). As the bracketed information shows, each combines not with a particular noun idea. Few represents a plural noun, little an uncountable one. Consider this:

(a)  Problems were expected but few occurred.

The indication here is of a nearly unproblematic outcome. The message would be the same with problems replaced by uncountable delay (+ was), necessitating little instead of few.

Many readers will know that few and little sometimes have a in front to express a different meaning. What changes is in fact the negativity: quantities are still indicated to be small, but they are no longer cast as inadequate.

Few and little are the only pronouns listed above that can also link with a following noun as “determiners”, e.g. few problems. None does have a corresponding determiner, but it is the different word no – a surprising change given that no change happens with not just few and little but also every other quantity expression (all, each, enough, most, many and some: see 28. Pronoun Errors and 133. Confusions of Similar Structures 1, #1).

For an example of little misused, see the task in 6. Hidden Negatives.

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3.  Adverbs

It is hardly surprising that adverbs are among the alternatives to not, given that not is itself an adverb. Again, the alternatives add an extra idea to that of not. The main ones are little, neither, never, nowhere, rarely, scarcely, barely, seldom, hardly and no longer.

Adverb uses of little can again be made positive by adding a in front. Rarely has the positive equivalent occasionally, while the meanings of scarcely and barely can be expressed positively with very occasionally (showing frequency) or just (showing quantity, as in just enough).

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4. Verbs

Verbs with a negative prefix are an obvious kind that can express the idea of “not”. The prefix is usually dis- (disbelieve, dislike, disobey, displease, distrust etc.). There are a few verbs, however, that lack any visible indication of negativity yet are still intuitively negative. Often, it will be the kind of words that they combine with that indicate negativity.

For example, AVOID, FAIL, LACK and NEGLECT may require an object with any (e.g. lack any hope) where their opposites (ENCOUNTER, SUCCEED, POSSESS, ATTEND TO) would have one with some. DENY, DOUBT, FORBID, PROHIBIT and REFUSE TO ACCEPT report negative statements with not or similar removed from them, thus implying that the idea of “not” is already present in their own meaning:

(b) Gomez (2020, p. 78) denies that the cost is excessive.

This means Gomez  says the cost is not excessive (see 279. Grammatical Differences between Citation Verbs, #6).

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5. Other

The ways of recognising negativity in verbs seem equally applicable to nouns (e.g. indecision, refusal), adjectives (e.g. averse, non-conformist, uninvited) and adverbs (e.g. illegally).

Negative conjunctions tend to combine a starting adverb with a later conjunction: no sooner…than…,  not only…but also…,  hardly/ scarcely…when…,  not…any more than… (see 64. Double Conjunctions). Similarly, the conjunction neither needs a later nor, though mid-sentence nor sometimes stands alone, like let alone (see 191. Exotic Grammar Structures 3, #2) and not that (269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #1).

A notable preposition is without. It can negate a following verb, forming an adverb-like addition to a longer sentence:

(c) Chemicals are needed that protect crops without disrupting ecosystems.

(d) Without (our) knowing all the facts, we cannot make a decision.

The without part in (c) means “but do not disrupt…”; that in (d) “if we do not know…”.

Verbs directly after without need the -ing (gerund) form, like any other verb after a preposition. Their subject can be indicated more explicitly with a preceding possessive adjective – our in (d). However, it can also be an ordinary (pro)noun, changing the verb into a participle with -ing or -ed (see 75. How to Avoid “Dangling” Participles, #4).

The without part in (c) is like a how-saying “manner” adverb, linking principally with the main verb protect. This prevents it starting the sentence. In (d), by contrast, the adverbial information relates to all of the rest of the sentence (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs), and could as a result occupy either the start or the end.

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INFLUENCES ON SURROUNDING WORDS

6. Verb before its Subject

Sentences starting with a negative adverb usually need their subject positioned after some or all of the verb, as in questions (see 307. Word Order Variations, #3). 

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7. Word Substitution

There are some words whose meaning often has to be expressed differently in negative statements (as in questions). The best-known is some (alone and within various longer words) – typically replaced by any. This pair is widely covered in mainstream grammars so needs little attention here. I wish just to emphasise that any is occasionally used without a negative and some occasionally accompanies one.

Any without a negative has a changed meaning – often implying an if statement. Some alongside a negative may be illustrated as follows:

(e) Even the most popular film will not please someone.

This indicates that many people will be pleased by popular films – someone represents a minority. Anyone, by contrast, would say nobody will be pleased. In the first case, not negates the verb please; in the second, it negates someone (making it replaceable by no-one). In a similar way, …did no go somewhere means one place was not visited, implying that others were; whereas anywhere would mean all possible places were unvisited.

Other words that are often (but not always) replaced in negative statements include also → not either, too (= also) → not either, still → no longer and already → not yet. Consider this:

(f) “Some” cannot often accompany a negative and “too” cannot either.

Either is necessary here instead of too or also.

Not either statements like the above can usually be rephrased as two sentences. There are two ways of wording the second sentence. The simplest is to replace and with a full stop. Very often, however, English speakers will change not either into a starting Neither…. This necessitates a further change: positioning the verb before its subject: Neither can “too” above (see 307. Word Order Variations, #3).

As well as words that are not very likely in negative statements, there are some that are especially likely there. Ever used with a negative verb to mean “at any time” (see 272. Uses of “Ever”, #1), is likely with positive verbs to be replaced by a time-point adverb like before, once or sometimes. Long with not + verb frequently becomes for a long time without it. Much frequently becomes often or plenty (see 98. “Very”, “Much and “Very Much”, #1). Note, though, that long and much can remain unchanged with positive LIKE (…much likes them, …has long liked it) and similar-meaning verbs (ADMIRE, APPRECIATE, ENJOY, LOVE, WANT, DISLIKE).

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8. Modified Reported Speech

Negative verbs like DENY and REFUSE (#4 above) are not the only reporting verbs that transfer negation from a reported statement to themselves. Other verbs of this kind, however, locate the negative alongside themselves rather than within their very meaning, like this:

(g) Ling (2022, p. 46) does not think that inflation will persist.

Here, not negates will persist, not think. Other verbs like THINK include BELIEVE, EXPECT, FEEL, IMAGINE and SUPPOSE. They are all “thought” verbs. However, not all thought verbs are like them. Hoped not to…, for example, introduces a hope whereas did not hope to… does not. Other verbs like HOPE include ASSUME, DOUBT, JUDGE and KNOW.

There are, in addition, some non-reporting verbs that are usable like THINK, especially APPEAR and SEEM.

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9. Added Emphasizers

Negative expressions can be made stronger with special wording before or after them:

(h) Petrov is NOT in any way criticising the theory.

Different negative types require different emphasizers. Common combinations are as follows (* = needs intervening words; + = forbids intervening words):

AT ALL: after barely, few, hardly, little, *neither, never, *no, no-, +none, *nor, not, rarely, scarcely, seldom, without

AT ANY TIME: after barely, hardly, neither, never, *no, no-, +none, nor, not, rarely, scarcely, seldom, without

BY ANY MEANS: after neither, nor, not

DEFINITELY: before no, no-, none, not, without

EVER: after barely, hardly, scarcely, *nor, not

IN ANY WAY: after neither, never, nor, not, without

UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES: after neither, never, *no, no-, +none, nor, not

VERY: before +few, +little, +rarely, +scarcely, +seldom

WHATSOEVER: after few, little, *no, no-, +none, *nor, not, *without

309. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 5

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Sometimes two grammar structures are hard to distinguish because of similar forms and/or meanings

TRICKY CONTRASTS IN ENGLISH

As in most languages, it is quite common in English to find two items, of either vocabulary or grammar, whose meanings are not easy to differentiate. Although a few pairs of this kind are covered by most English coursebooks, and are as a result well-known, many are overlooked.

In this blog, posts with the above title consider rarely-explained meaning differences between grammatical structures that seem to say the same. For a list of all the posts, see 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1. These structures are to be distinguished from similar-seeming ones that often cause grammar errors – separately considered under the heading Confusions of Similar Structures. For differences between confusingly similar vocabulary items, there are numerous posts entitled “Tricky Word Contrasts”. For a full list, plus an alphabetical list of all of the words in them, click here.

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EXPLANATIONS OF SIMILAR STRUCTURES

1. “The Xs…” versus “Xs such as…”

One of the many combinations that can be made by placing a noun (or noun-like expression) in front of one or more others is a plural class name, such as colours, followed without a comma by one or more names of members of the class, such as brown and grey. There are associated grammatical requirements which differ according to whether the member names represent some or all of the class members.

The simplest means of indicating the idea of “some” is a suitable expression added directly after the class name, such as like, such as or including:

(a) Colours like brown and grey can be depressing.

This links can be depressing with not just brown and grey but also colours of a similar kind (a category the reader is assumed to be able to recognise). For a full list of possible linking expressions, see 1. Simple Example-Giving.

By contrast, the simplest way to show that one or more nouns after a class name are naming all of the class members that the whole statement is about (i.e. that brown and grey above are all, or the only, colours that can be depressing), is to avoid special wording after the class name, and instead add the before it:

(b) The colours brown and grey can be depressing.

For a full description of this usage, see 117. Restating Generalizations more Specifically, #3.

A complication arises when the class name refers to a specific identified group rather than a general class, a meaning that also requires the. Sentences like (a) can accommodate this just by adding the at the start, but in sentences like (b), where the is already present, there is a need to do something like naming the class member(s) before the class name:

(c) The brown and grey colours can be depressing.

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2. Text-Describing Present Perfect Tense

Both the present perfect tense (with has/have) and the past simple (with -ed) enable mention to be made of an earlier part of a text where they are used. The difference between them is similar to that in their everyday use, where the present perfect typically refers to times of a more recent and still-relevant nature. Thus, to talk correctly about an earlier part of a text, there is a need to recognise what in texts is considered “recent”.

One useful distinction in this respect involves chapters or sections. If the indicated earlier part of the text is in a chapter before the indication, the past simple is the more likely choice; otherwise, the present perfect is preferred:

(d) The last chapter presented definitions; the current one has described relevant procedures.

Obviously, the fact that the relevant procedures are earlier in the current chapter means the verb in the present perfect tense is probably at the end (at the start, it would be describes or will describe). In fact, this use of the present perfect tense is so likely to be near the end of a chapter that it can be considered a kind of end-marking signpost language (see the end of #2 in 186. Language in Oral Presentations).

Yet the present perfect tense is not always the right choice for referring back to something in the same chapter or section. There are certain past-referring adverb expressions that necessitate, or at least allow, the past simple, similarly to expressions in everyday usage like last night or ago. Examples are at the start (colouring the start as long ago), a few paragraphs back and earlier.

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3. “The” between BE and a Comparative Adjective

A familiar use of comparative adjectives is after the noun they are describing, with a link verb like BE or SEEM in between:

(e) Driving is quicker than cycling, but cycling is cheaper.

Here, the comparative adjective quicker is describing the earlier noun driving, and cheaper is describing cycling.

What is notable about this usage is that the is sometimes possible before the comparative. Sentence (e) could end …is the cheaper. Adding the requires an absent than… after the comparative. For that to be possible, the idea that would normally follow than – indicating what the comparison is with – must already be obvious from either the situation where the sentence is uttered or previous words. In (e), of course, it is the previous word driving that indicates what cycling is being compared with.

Where the is possible, it is not compulsory, and creates only a slight meaning difference. It seems just to emphasise that the meaning of the unmentioned than part is already available.

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4. “South of” versus “to the South of”

These expressions (and their equivalents with the other compass words, such as east and north-west) may each express either static location or movement. To appreciate the difference made by to the to the static meaning, consider the following:

(f) Zambia is south of Tanzania.

This indicates that Zambia is geographically beyond the southern border of Tanzania, but not how far. Adding to the, on the other hand, would say that Zambia is next to this border (see 295. Options in Saying Where, #7).

By contrast, the movement meaning without to the is illustrated in sentences with a travel verb like went:

(g) Livingstone went south of Tanganyika.

This means Livingstone made a journey across the southern border of Tanganyika. Adding to the, on the other hand, would say that Livingstone made a journey into the southern part of Tanganyika, probably from somewhere in the same country.

For more about words like south, see 151. Ways of Using Compass Words.

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5. “Cannot decide” versus “Cannot make a decision”

Various reasons for preferring MAKE A DECISION to the simpler DECIDE are identified earlier in this blog in 39. “Decide” or “Make a Decision”?. An important one is that the frequent need of DECIDE to precede an object or to verb can be a problem if there is a good reason not to have one of these, such as a wish not to state the obvious.

What happens, though, if DECIDE does not need an object, as in the following?

(h) The committee is deciding tomorrow.

Used like this, DECIDE is likely to mean not just “find a solution” but “make a selection from multiple options”. The options are likely to be equally attractive or unattractive, and to be already known, perhaps because they have just been mentioned. The usage is probably “object-dropping” rather than “intransitive” (see 8. Object-Dropping Errors). MAKE A DECISION remains an alternative, but would be vague about the number and visibility of the options.

A stronger difference arises when cannot is included. Cannot decide implies that difficulty of selection is the reason why, whereas cannot make a decision, in less strongly suggesting selection, is more likely to indicate a different reason for the absence of a decision, such as illness.

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6. “Know to” versus “Know how to”

Somebody who knows how to do something knows the way it can or should be done. How introduces an indirect question within which the relevant action is expressed with a to (infinitive) verb (see 105. Questions with a “to” Verb).

On the other hand, knowing to do something is knowing that it is the right thing to do, as in this example:

(i) Lions know to keep clear of elephants.

The meaning here is that lions know keeping clear of elephants is the way to behave. The infinitive is a kind of object of know, and hence in a closer grammatical relationship (see 302. Verbs with a Partner Infinitive, #1). One other verb usable in the same two ways is LEARN.

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7. “that is to say” versus “that is”

These are both synonyms of in other words, commonly used for rephrasing a just-mentioned idea (see 286. Repeating in Different Words, #4 and #6). They are often presented as interchangeable, when in fact they sometimes have to be punctuated differently.

The rephrased wording next to each expression may be located in the same sentence as the original wording, or in a new sentence directly after it. In the first case, the usage is preposition-like; in the second, both expressions are connectors – a dual capability also possessed by for example (see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #4).

With new-sentence rephrasing, the punctuation of the two expressions is also the same, namely a full stop before and a comma directly after:

(j) Heart disease is linked to a sedentary lifestyle. That is (to say), it becomes more likely if exercise is rare.

When the rephrasing is not in a new sentence, a comma is needed before both expressions and another one, or a full stop, is needed at the end of the rephrasing, thus forming a parenthesis (see 294. Parentheses):

(k) Anticyclones, that is to say high pressure areas, bring quiet weather.

A difference in this situation, however, is that that is always seems to need a further comma directly after it, whereas that is to say is only likely to have one there if the explanation is long.

One reason for the more frequent comma usage after that is may be the possibility of other meanings being understandable when a comma is absent, such as the relative pronoun use of that. A problem with this comma need, though, is that it can bring unwelcome high comma densities – three within 6 words in (k) (Anticyclones, that is, high pressure areas, …). This may be a reason why the longer that is to say is often preferred.