33. Complex Example-Giving

 

Some examples illustrate both a general class and a statement about it

DEFINITION AND TYPES OF EXAMPLE-GIVING

Example-giving has four main features. Firstly, it names members of a previously-mentioned general class. For instance, cats or cats and dogs given as examples might be found alongside the general class name animals.

Secondly, example-giving indicates that fewer than all of the general class members are being mentioned. Without such indication, the reader will take any list of class members to be a complete one (see 54. Sentence Lists 1: Incidental) and mention of just one to be an identification (see 117. Restating Generalizations More Specifically). Writers might selectively mention class members because the class is too large. Sometimes they might indicate unmentioned members because they do not know if any exist and they want to avoid wrongly suggesting that none do (see 96. Making Statements More Uncertain 2).

Thirdly, class members named as examples are not chosen because they are special in any way; their choice is random. Thus, any statement beginning with in particular or above all or the most… is unlikely to be example-giving. For more about statements like these, see 54. Sentence Lists 1: Incidental.

Fourthly, the purpose of naming the class members is to clarify or verify the class name and/or statement about it. One can selectively name class members for other purposes, for example as an introduction to their longer discussion (see 263. Uses of “One” and “Ones”, #3), but then they are not examples. One can also clarify or verify with a complete list of class members – again not exemplification.

One kind of example-giving deals just with single general expressions. For the language choices available to facilitate it, see 1. Simple Example-Giving. Here, I wish to consider exemplification of multiple general expressions in the same sentence, like this:

(a) Many animal species have died out in the past. Dinosaurs, for example, disappeared 60 million years ago.

In this example, dinosaurs is a member of the class many animal species in the first sentence, but 60 million years ago can also be linked to a more general equivalent there: the past. The verb disappeared is just a differently-worded repetition of have died out. “Complex example-giving” is my own name for this sort of exemplification. It has a number of language features that can cause problems for writers.

.

HOW TO GIVE A COMPLEX EXAMPLE

Unlike simple examples, complex ones allow much less choice about whether or not to place them in the same sentence as the general idea that they illustrate: they normally need a new sentence. Often this new sentence is introduced with example-showing words, but not always: in research that I conducted in 1985¹, I found that around 30% of new-sentence exemplification had no example-showing language. In such cases, the meaning of exemplification is understandable just from the positioning of the example sentence after the one containing the class name (see 18. Relations between Sentences).

The example-showing language most commonly associated with complex example-giving is for example, for instance and thus. Used like this, they are acting as connectors, like therefore and however (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors). The example-indicating use of thus needs to be distinguished  from various other uses that it has (see 289. Exotic Grammar Structures 8, #1).

Other words that can show complex examples are take, consider, suppose and imagine (see below), plus various synonyms of connectors. One could, for example, start the example-containing sentence(s) with As an illustration…, or incorporate one of the words more typically associated with simple examples, such as one is, etc., say, an example or include.

Because for example and for instance are connectors, they are usually found with a comma after them, and their position is flexible. These are very different features from those that they have in simple example-giving, where they usually accompany noun-like examples and are hence more like prepositions (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #1). Note in particular that, while the connector use of for example (with complex examples) normally has a comma or full stop directly after it (as well as one before), the preposition use (with simple examples) generally has no directly-following punctuation (see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #4).

.

COMMON ERRORS IN COMPLEX EXAMPLE-GIVING

The following are the main pitfalls to avoid:

Error 1: Incorrect Comma Use with “For Example” & ”For Instance”

It is easy to confuse the two different uses – connector and preposition – of these two expressions. As explained in the last section, complex example-giving needs the connector use (full stop/comma before and after).

.

Error 2: Everything Said in One Sentence

Two forms of this error are:

(b) *Many environmental problems result from the use of air pollutants, for example acid rain is caused by sulphur dioxide.

(c) *Many environmental problems result from the production of air pollutants, for example sulphur dioxide, which causes acid rain.

The first of these is incorrect because it breaks the full stop rule of “new verb, new sentence”. The new verb (is caused) can only stay in the same sentence as the old one (result) if there is also a joining device (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). There is no joining device in (b): the words for example are a connector, not a joining device.

Sentence (c) is grammatically correct (the joining device is which) but not recommended because its form is very rare: writers of formal English prefer to give complex examples in a new sentence.

.

Error 3: “For Example”/“For Instance” in a Sentence without a Verb

It is possible to give the class member and the information about it in separate new sentences (see below), but not with for example or for instance, because they would then produce a sentence without a verb, like this:

(d) *Air pollutants cause many problems. For example sulphur dioxide. It leads to acid rain.

.

Error 4: Repetition of the Class Name with “it”

Sentence (d) cannot be corrected by simply changing the full stop after sulphur dioxide into a comma. The problem then is the repetition with it. Although conversational English allows this sort of same-sentence pronoun repetition, formal written English does not (see 24. Good & Bad Repetition).

.

“TAKE”, “CONSIDER”, “IMAGINE” AND “SUPPOSE

TAKE and CONSIDER enable a complex example to be given in more than one sentence:

(e) Air pollutants cause many problems. Take (or Consider) sulphur dioxide. This leads to acid rain.

TAKE and CONSIDER here are in the “imperative” form (see 128. Imperative Verbs in Formal Writing, #5). Their meanings are roughly the same (see 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE, #11). The noun after them (sulphur dioxide) exemplifies the first of two general ideas mentioned in the first sentence (air pollutants). The other general idea (problems) is exemplified in a later sentence (acid rain).

This kind of division does not lead to a sentence without a verb, like the “sentence” with for example/ for instance in (d) above, because TAKE and CONSIDER are themselves verbs. For example or for instance can actually be added after TAKE or CONSIDER, or at the end of their sentence.

Using TAKE or CONSIDER to exemplify in two sentences has a slightly different effect from using for example to exemplify in one: it places the focus more on the information in the last sentence. The information carried by the object of TAKE or CONSIDER is implied to be already known to the addressee. Thus, in (e), addressees are assumed to know already that sulphur dioxide is an example of air pollutants, and they are being informed primarily of its link with acid rain.

TAKE and CONSIDER seem equally usable most of the time. However, CONSIDER has to be used before objects beginning with a question word, such as how writers can show disagreement.

Instead of both TAKE and CONSIDER, it is also possible to use is a case in point:

(f) Air pollutants cause many problems. Sulphur dioxide IS A CASE IN POINT. It leads to acid rain.

Note how the third sentence here has it instead of this, because the noun it refers to is now the subject of the sentence before, not its object.

IMAGINE and SUPPOSE are similar to TAKE and CONSIDER but introduce hypothetical rather than factual examples. The object of both is commonly a that statement:

(g) Driving at high speed is sometimes necessary. Imagine that you are on a fast road. …

IMAGINE can also have an ordinary noun as its object, but SUPPOSE cannot.

Now here is an exercise that might help some of the above points to be better understood and remembered. 

.

PRACTICE EXERCISE (COMPLEX EXEMPLIFICATION)

In this exercise, you have to find example-giving that should have a full stop before it, and then identify the verb(s) in it that make the full stop necessary. Answers are given below.

1. Many countries besides Spain are Spanish-speaking for example Venezuela.

2. Some numbers below 25 can be exactly divided by at least five other numbers for instance 12 can be divided by 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6.

3. Essay writing involves particular skills for example grouping and sequencing points in a logical way.

4. There are numerous requirements for giving a successful oral presentation for example using signpost language promotes audience attention.

5. Building more roads is desirable for various reasons for instance it can reduce accidents.

6. Languages can be learned with the help of special books for example dictionaries, which assist vocabulary acquisition.

7. Nature is an influential source of technological innovation consider the wings of birds these have facilitated aircraft design.

.

ANSWERS: The new-sentence example giving should be in nos. 2 (can be divided), 4 (promotes), 5 (can reduce) and 7 (consider and have facilitated = two example sentences). Note that verbs with –ing or which (e.g. grouping in 3 and which assist in 6) do not by themselves require a new sentence.

_____________________________________

¹FANNING, P.  (1985)  Exemplification in Academic Textbooks (MPhil Dissertation).  Reading (England): University of Reading.

32. Expressing Consequences

.

There are many ways to express a consequence in either the same sentence as its cause or a new one

THE NEED TO GIVE CAUSES WITH CONSEQUENCES

In one sense, all events and states are consequences, since they all have a cause. This post is about highlighting their consequential nature. Doing so usually involves mentioning the cause as well, rather as giving a reason requires mention of what it explains (see 306. Ways of Giving a Reason).

Consequences are, in fact, one of numerous meanings that require mention of “partner” information. Others, besides reasons, include examples (partners of a general class name), similarities (with a similar item), exceptions (with a general rule), and repetition in different words (with the original wording).

As with these other meanings, the partner information can be given in the same sentence or a separate one. These two possibilities assist great variety in the expression of consequences, but also lead to some common grammar problems.

.

SEPARATE-SENTENCE CONSEQUENCES

When a cause and its consequence are in different sentences, the cause one is normally first. One way of showing the link between the two is by placing the word consequence or equivalent in the first, thereby explicitly indicating the role of the second (see 117. Restating Generalizations More Specifically), e.g.:

(a) The popularity of sugar has a visible consequence. More people are overweight.

Other nouns like consequence (for) include a bearing (on), an effect (on), an impact (on), an influence (on), repercussions (for) and implications (for). The partner preposition enables the consequence sufferer to be named in the first sentence; care is needed in choosing between for and on (see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1, #c).

The other main type of new-sentence consequence-naming needs no consequence wording, being instead recognisable just from saying something that can only be interpreted as a consequence, like this:

(b) Most of South America was colonised by Spain. It now speaks Spanish. 

An absence of special language showing sentence links like this is common in English (see 18. Relations between Sentences). However, like most links, consequences can also be indicated more explicitly with special language in the second sentence, especially a “logical connector” (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors).

Common consequence connectors are consequently, in consequence, as a consequence, as a result, in turn, therefore, hence, for this reason, that is why and thus. For some differences between them, see 20. Problem Connectors‘. For illustrations of typical usage, see 167. Ways of Arguing 1,  210. Process Descriptions and 282. Features of History Writing, #6.

Also notable are in conclusion with consequences of extensive preceding analysis (see 186. Language in Oral Presentations); no wonder with visible or previously-mentioned consequences (see 207. Exotic Grammar Structures 4, #5); and at that with consequential human behaviours (see 234. Adjective & Pronoun Uses of “that”).

Other types of consequence indicator usable in the second sentence include adjectives like resultant and nouns like consequence (see 112. Synonyms of Connectors). However, conjunctions are excluded, as they require a cause and consequence to occupy a single sentence.

. 

SAME-SENTENCE CONSEQUENCES (CONJUNCTIONS)

Conjunctions are the most obvious means of naming a consequence alongside its cause in one sentence. One important group is so, so that and so…that:

(b) The immigrants worked hard so (they) became rich.

(c) The immigrants worked hard so that they became rich.

(d) The immigrants worked so hard that they became rich.

I would suggest that so alone, as in (b), can introduce only logically expected consequences – a possibility but not a necessity with the other two. The same difference seems to exist between the connectors therefore and as a result (see 20. Problem Connectors, #4) and between the causal conjunctions since and because (see 61. “Since” versus “Because”).

Conjunction alternatives to so alone include with the result that, and, and so (more in speech than writing), plus various emphatic combinations of and + connector (and therefore, and hence, and thus, and consequently: see 125. Stress and Emphasis, #4).

So directly before that, as in (c), becomes such if it means “of such a kind” or “in such a way” (see 230. Multi-Word Conjunctions, #1). This substitution would be possible, for example, if worked hard in (c) was replaced by organised their work.

It is important to appreciate the difference between the consequence use of so that, as illustrated in (c), and the purpose use (see 60. Purpose Sentences with “For”). Compare (c) with the following purpose sentence:

(e) The immigrants worked hard so that they might become rich. 

Here, the verb after so that is might become, not became. It indicates that the immigrants wanted to become rich without saying whether they succeeded. The same meaning is possible with would or could (though could can also express consequential capability: see 288. Grammatical Subtleties, #4), and also with may, can or will when the main verb tense is present. Purpose-showing so that can start a sentence as well as occupy the middle.

In sentence (d), so has an adverb (hard) between itself and that. This makes so an adverb of degree (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much), leaving the role of conjunction just to that. As such, so means the same as very, the word that is often preferred when that is absent. So meaning “very” is possible with adjectives as well as adverbs (…was so easy that…).

Adjectives after so in sentences like (d) can be given a partner noun – provided so is changed to such (such hard work that.. ). Such can even precede a lone noun (such work that…).

Sentences like (d) can be reordered in various ways. The consequence may come first without that (see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1). So/Such can be the first word (with altered following wording: see 64. Double Conjunctions). The so/such part can be replaced by a noun + relative clause (see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses, #5).

Other conjunctions that can show a consequence mean “because”:

(f) Because the immigrants worked hard, they became rich.

For more on because, see 61. “Since” versus “Because”. There is also a use of just because to deny an expected consequence (see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #2). Even if can be a causal conjunction, suggesting a less definitely-occurring cause (see 118. Problems with Conditional “if”). The start of the sentence seems the best position for a causal conjunction in a consequence-giving sentence.

The work of causal conjunctions can also be done with prepositions (see 72. Causal Prepositions).

Choosing a causal conjunction or preposition perhaps ensures that the sentence is about only the consequence, rather than about both the cause and the consequence. For example, the reader of (f) will be assumed to know already that the immigrants worked hard, but not that they consequently became rich. 

.

SAME-SENTENCE CONSEQUENCES (OTHER POSSIBILITIES)

Conjunctions are grammatical expressions that are often paraphrasable in a non-grammatical way (see 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #7). With consequences, one common alternative is cause verbs:

(g) Hard work CAUSED the immigrants to become rich.

Here, caused requires the consequence (underlined) to follow it as its object. Similar verbs include ALLOW, ASSIST, BE A CAUSE OF, BRING ABOUT, COMPEL, CONTRIBUTE TO, ENABLE, ENCOURAGE, ENSURE, ENTAIL, FACILITATE, FORCE, HAVE, HELP, IMPEL, INDUCE, LEAD, LEAD TO, LET, MAKE, MAKE … POSSIBLE, MEAN, PERMIT, PROMPT, RESULT IN, SPARK, STIMULATE and TRIGGER. Note also BE THAT… (after a consequence of… – see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”, #3).

Some other verbs need a consequence before them (as subject), e.g. BE A CONSEQUENCE (or RESULT) OF, FLOW FROM, REQUIRE and RESULT FROM. The passive form of many verbs above also gives this meaning.

Consequence verbs vary greatly in their grammatical usage. Apart from HAVE, LET and MAKE, those with a following consequence allow it to be expressed with just an “action” noun (sometimes linked to a preposition phrase, e.g. …enrichment of the immigrants: see 131. Uses of “Action” Nouns, #1). After SPARK and TRIGGER such nouns are practically the norm (see 273. Verb-Object Collocations, #16).

Many verbs alternatively allow a following noun + to verb (infinitive) – like to become in (g). This is possible with ALLOW, ASSIST, CAUSE, COMPEL, ENABLE, ENCOURAGE, FORCE, HELP, IMPEL, INDUCE, LEAD, LEAVE (= allow by not stopping), PERMIT, PROMPT and STIMULATE. An infinitive alone after these verbs is usually incorrect (see 65. Verbs that Mean “Must” or “Can”, #1).

After the object of HAVE, LET and MAKE, infinitives have no to (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, #2), while BE/BECOME after MAKE must also disappear (see 141. Ways of Using MAKE).

BE A CAUSE OF, LEAD TO, RESULT IN, BRING ABOUT and CONTRIBUTE TO are “prepositional” verbs. They thus allow a following noun or -ing verb or both. Having both is sometimes compulsory, e.g. …the immigrants becoming rich. Following nouns used alone are often of the action kind.

Also possible with -ing, with or without an object noun in between, are ENTAIL, FACILITATE, MAKE…POSSIBLE and MEAN. The object may be replaced by a possessive noun, e.g. …facilitates the immigrants’ becoming rich (see 232. Verbs with an Object + “-ing”). ENTAIL and MEAN additionally allow a following that statement. After ENSURE, a that statement is the only alternative to a lone noun (see 296. Tricky Word Contrasts 12, #1).

The second main way to combine a consequence with its cause in the same sentence is by means of an –ing verb near the end:

(h) The immigrants worked hard, thus becoming rich.

Thus before the -ing verb is common but not compulsory. Synonyms are possible too, particularly hence and consequently, but these are rarer in Standard English than in some other varieties. For more on this use, see 101. Add-On Participles.

Thirdly, a consequence can be expressed in the same sentence as its cause with a to verb (infinitive). Often this is after enough or too:

(i) The immigrants worked hard enough to become rich.

For more about enough, see 189. Expressing Sufficiency. Too, of course, introduces negative consequences: too hard would say the immigrants did not become rich! 

Consequence infinitives without too or enough are possible only in special circumstances (see 246. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 2, #5).

.

PRACTICE EXERCISE (CONSEQUENCES)

To assist understanding and memorization of points above, try to find one suitable word for each blank space below (answers follow).

1. Some food bacteria produce poisonous substances ………. the result that the food becomes dangerous. 

2. Studying grammar does not always ………. to successful language use. 

3. Drug addicts often run out of money ………. consequently they tend to engage in crime. 

4. Adding salt to water lowers its freezing point, ………. making it suitable for controlling winter ice. 

5. People need to know what is in their food.  ………. food-labelling is commonplace in supermarkets today. 

6. Excessive alcohol consumption can result ………. the liver ………. damaged. 

7. Smoking is so ………. to give up ………. increasing its cost has little effect. 

8. The earth’s atmosphere is gradually warming up ………. extreme weather is occurring more frequently.

. 

Answers: 1 = with;   2 = lead or contribute;   3 = and;   4 = thus;   5 = Consequently or Hence or Thus or Therefore or As a result;   6 = in + being;   7 = difficult or hard + that;   8 = so or so that or and.