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English has numerous word combinations that work together as a conjunction
GENERAL NATURE AND IMPORTANCE
Conjunctions, like other generally recognised word classes (“parts of speech”), tend to be thought of as single words but can also be multi-word. Conjunctions of two, three or even more words can be identified, though usually the last word will be a familiar shorter conjunction like that. Common examples are provided that, as soon as and in case. Some grammarians call one-word conjunctions “simple” and multi-word ones “complex”.
A slightly surprising observation about multi-word conjunctions is their quantity and variety. In this respect, they are rather like multi-word prepositions (see 221. Multi-Word Prepositions) and multi-word connectors (see 259. Multi-Word Connectors) – a reflection of the general similarity between all these word types (see 174. Eight Things to Know about Conjunctions, #2 and #8). The quantity and variety of multi-word conjunctions means that studying them is likely to be a useful language-learning exercise. Here I wish to list the possibilities and analyse various aspects of their form and meaning.
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DEFINING FEATURES
Recognising a multi-word conjunction is often helped by seeing whether it can replace or be replaced by an ordinary one-word conjunction in a sentence without changing the sentence’s overall structure (ignoring changes in the meaning). Consider this:
(a) As soon as the sun sets, mosquitoes become active.
As soon as is indicated to be a multi-word conjunction from the fact that it is easily replaced in this sentence by single-word conjunctions like as, when, after or while. The reason why conjunctions are possible at all is that the sentence contains two ordinary-form verbs (sets and become) – possible together in the same sentence only if they are accompanied by some special linguistic facilitator, or “joining device”, since without one the general rule is that each new verb needs a new sentence (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). Conjunctions are the only kind of joining device that can directly replace as soon as above.
However, there is a problem with this method: not all word groups that can be replaced by a conjunction are true multi-word conjunctions. Consider this:
(b) People may avoid eating meat in the belief that this improves their health.
It is easy enough here to replace in the belief that with the conjunction because, but intuitively the longer phrase is not a multi-word conjunction. I believe that an additional requirement is for a combination to be fixed (see 164. Fixed Preposition Phrases). In the belief that lacks this feature because belief can be replaced by expectation or hope. The best that can be said is that the alternatives are relatively few in number, so that in the belief that could perhaps be considered a borderline case.
As these observations suggest, there is an element of subjectivity in deciding fixedness of conjunction-like phrases, with the result that different people are likely to produce different lists of multi-word conjunctions. However, the examples that I propose below will hopefully still prove useful.
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COMMON MULTI-WORD CONJUNCTIONS
Grammarians sometimes divide multi-word conjunctions into three main groups: those ending in that, those with other endings, and those split by words in between.
1. Conjunctions Ending in “that”
That at the end of a multi-word conjunction is itself a conjunction (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”). In the following examples, the highlighting indicates a link leading to further discussion elsewhere in this blog.
assuming that
considering that
despite (or notwithstanding) the fact that
except that
given that
granted that
*in order that
*in that
*not that
now that
on condition that
once that
provided/providing that
save that
seeing that
*so that
*such that
supposing that
*to the extent that
Mention might also be made of the borderline cases *with the result (or consequence) that and on the understanding (or assumption) that.
Most of the above conjunctions can drop that (leaving it “understood”). Of the exceptions (marked *), some express purpose and/or result, the others mostly limitation. Among the former, so that can show either purpose or result (see 32. Expressing Consequences); in order that expresses just purpose; while such that may express just result. Purpose uses can start a sentence but result ones cannot.
Such that statements can be adjective-like or adverb-like. The former describe a preceding noun (often a subject of BE), with such meaning “of such a kind”:
(c) The new law was such that traders changed their behaviour.
Sometimes, such statements express a classification more than a result, especially if that… describes the same noun as such (e.g. …that it was difficult to enforce above).
The adverb-like use, by contrast, links with verbs. It would exist in (c) if, for example, was became was designed. Such then means “in such a way”. It is often replaceable by so that. However, the latter is more widely usable because it does not always mean “in such a way”.
Sometimes, both analyses of such that are possible:
(d) Draw a line such that every point stands within 1 cm. of it.
Such that here might be linking with either a line or draw.
The limitation conjunctions – in that and to the extent that – again tend to be mid-sentence ones. They often limit a similarity or difference (are similar/different in that…: see 82. Common Errors in Making Comparisons, #7). However, any verb or adjective can have its meaning limited:
(e) The problem was difficult in that it demanded patience.
This means the problem was not difficult in every respect – just in the specified area.
Not that similarly occupies the middle of a sentence (see 269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #1).
Assuming that, considering that and provided that are all similar to if, but more precise. For a detailed analysis, see 179. Deeper Meanings of “if”.
Given that, seeing that and granted that all introduce a reason (see 306. Ways of Giving a Reason, #1), often in support of an argument (see 167. Ways of Arguing 1). Given that and seeing that imply that the information used as the reason is already accepted as true (see 244. Special Uses of GIVE, #7):
(f) Given/Seeing that nobody was injured, no further action will be taken.
The association of given/ seeing that with accepted information makes them common at the start of a sentence, where such information is typically placed (see 37. Subordination). Of course, they are both replaceable by because, but that is neutral about acceptedness, so is as often in the middle of a sentence as at the start. For more about because, see 61. “Since” versus “Because”.
Granted that introduces information that the writer has reluctantly accepted, often from someone else:
(g) Granted that new roads attract extra drivers, what else could ease traffic congestion?
This implies the writer has struggled to accept the point about new roads.
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2. Conjunctions without “that”
Here, the last word is usually a conjunction itself, like that above, but exceptions occur (underlined):
as if or as though
as (or so) long as
as soon as
as though
in case
in order to
insofar as
insomuch as
just as
just because
just when
let alone
rather than
sooner than
so as to
up until
Also notable are some borderline combinations mostly comprising an adverb and simple conjunction. Even is common before as, if or though (see 118. Problems with Conditional “if”, #4). Just meaning “immediately” commonly precedes the temporal conjunctions after, as, before or when. Much frequently precedes as. During which time is sometimes preferable to as, when or while (see 225. Simultaneous Occurrence, #2).
Just as, just because and just when seem true multi-word conjunctions when they have a particular special meaning. Just as must mean “very like”, rather than the temporal “exactly while” (see 149. Saying how Things are Similar). For the special uses of just because and just when, see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #2, and 311. Exotic Grammar Structures 9, #1.
Four expressions above – in order to, so as to, rather than and sooner than – typically link with a base-form (infinitive) verb, rather than an ordinary subject and verb, and the latter two may also have an -ing participle. However, most grammarians still classify them as conjunctions. For details of rather than and sooner than, see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, #3. For details of in order to and so as to, see 60. Purpose Sentences with “For”.
In case is the only conjunction in the list that ends with a noun. It is used differently in British and American English (see 118. Problems with Conditional “if”, #1).
As (or so) long as introduces a condition for a desirable outcome, similarly to provided that (see 179. Deeper Meanings of “if”), but literally suggests as well that the condition and its consequence occur in parallel through time, like this:
(h) Students perform well as long as they work hard.
Sometimes, though, this time suggestion is absent, making the use more metaphorical (see 258. Saying How Long Something Lasts, #3).
Insofar as is another synonym of in that as illustrated in (e) above – which it could replace.
As if and as though introduce a “like” statement about something that is either possibly true or not true at all, depending on the tense of the verb after (see 191. Exotic Grammar Structures 3, #3). Consider this:
(i) It is best to continue as if nothing is happening.
Here, the present tense is after as if suggests that nothing…happening is possibly true. However, was would deny its truth: the message would be that something is actually happening. Note that with a past tense main verb, this distinction is not possible, since the verb after as if must be past even with true events.
As soon as marks an occurrence as earlier in time than one expressed by the main part of its sentence. It differs from when, after and once in such situations in indicating minimal time between the two occurrences. For information about its verb tense requirements, see 171. Aspects of the Past Perfect Tense.
Let alone makes its statement more negative than the one before it (see 191. Exotic Grammar Structures 3, #2).
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3. Conjunctions Split by Words in between
Technically, these are often referred to as “correlatives”. The main ones are:
as…(so)…
just as…so…
both…and…
either…or…
if…then…
neither…nor…
no sooner…than…
not…any more than…
not only/not just…but also..
would rather/would sooner…than…
so/such…that…
whether…or…
For detailed analyses, see 64. Double Conjunctions and 99. Meanings of “whether…or…”.
No sooner…than… is a synonym of as soon as, but starting with no sooner requires the verb’s subject to follow an auxiliary verb or BE (see 307. Word Order Variations, #3).
After would + rather / sooner, the next word is usually an infinitive verb (without to), and the than part can be left unsaid:
(j) Many cyclists would rather wear a silly-looking helmet (than risk serious injury).
The so/such…that… combination only expresses result. After so, there must be an adverb, or an adjective without a noun; after such, there must be a noun, with or without an adjective in between.
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