158. Abbreviated Sentences

It is useful to know the kinds of word that can be left out of a sentence to save time

THE NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF ABBREVIATED SENTENCES

“Abbreviated” here means written in the shortest way possible, without regard for grammar rules. It is the kind of writing that might be found in student notes or in newspaper headlines. It is not to be confused with “concise” writing, which aims at maximum brevity without breaking grammar rules (see 205. Paraphrasing Prepositions with Words of Other Kinds).

Abbreviation can be of both words and sentences. While abbreviated words lack some of their letters (see 130. Formal Abbreviations), abbreviated sentences lack some of their words. In the following imaginary newspaper headline, three small words are missing:

(a) Queen to visit leading car manufacturer.

The rules of English grammar would normally require this sentence to begin with a word like the, to include is or is going alongside to visit (because in full sentences a lone verb with to usually needs another verb with it – see 30. When to Write a Full Stop), and to add the or a before leading.

The reason for leaving out words that English grammar normally requires is to save either space or time. Newspaper headlines are nearly always space-restricted. Historically, telegram writing was too, a result of each word costing a sum of money (I once sent my parents the message girl Emily born 22 June 01.30). In technical writing, space-saving tends to keep wording on diagrams to the minimum. Saving time is of course the aim of students writing notes, whether to keep up with what lecturers say, or to facilitate oral presentations (see 186. Language in Oral Presentations), or to prepare text content for a paraphrase (see 80. How to Paraphrase).

Speakers whose mother tongue is not English are likely to find abbreviated sentences problematic in both reading and writing. Readers need to recognise not just that a word is absent, but also what it is. Writers need to know which words can be left out and which cannot – to in (a) above, for example, is not normally omissible. It is on these two questions that the present post offers guidelines.

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WORDS COMMONLY OMITTED FROM ABBREVIATED SENTENCES

In general, any word can be omitted whose meaning can be understood without it. In a few cases, dropping such a word will leave a sentence that would still be acceptable in ordinary English. However, most of the time it will leave a sentence that would not be correct in ordinary English usage and should only be used where abbreviated language is expected. The following types of omissible words can be identified.

1. Words whose Omission is always Grammatical

Word omission that is grammatical in ordinary English tends to be of the kind technically called “ellipsis”. The following example is from the Guinlist post 68. How Computers Get Grammar Wrong 1:

(b) One of these housed the chapel, another (housed) a library.

As with most ellipsis, the dropped word housed here is easily recognised (except by computers) as a repetition of a word used nearby. For other examples of ellipsis, see 36. Words Left Out to Avoid Repetition.

Note that, although most words representing a repeated idea can be omitted in abbreviated writing, a few are not omissible in ordinary English. Verb objects are a major group in this category (see 8. Object-Dropping Errors). In the following, him is only omissible in abbreviated writing:

(c) However bad a man may be, his relatives will not completely reject him.

Similarly, one after an adjective describing a repeated noun, e.g. the easy one, is not grammatically omissible, even though it is if the adjective is in the comparative or superlative form (see 102. Adjectives with no Noun 2).

Another kind of word that can be omitted even in ordinary English is more related to the grammar of sentences than their meaning. One of the most common is that (pronounced with /ә/ rather than /æ/), which can be either a conjunction or a relative pronoun (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”). Readers will be familiar with the possibility of leaving out this word when it either introduces indirect speech or represents the object of a so-called “defining” relative clause, as in this example from 34. Relative Pronouns and Commas:

(d) Reforms (that) Napoleon introduced were long lasting.

Other words of this kind include in order before to, BE in various constructions (see 192. When BE can be Omitted), and as before the object complement of a few verbs like ELECT (see 92. Verbs with an Object + “As”).

Also worth mentioning are preposition phrases that can be paraphrased with a shorter structure, such as an adverb (e.g. with ease/easily – see 85. Preposition Phrases and Corresponding Adverbs), two nouns together (e.g. demand management for management of demand – see 136. Types of Description by Nouns), or a position-showing verb (e.g. inhabits for lives in – see 205. Paraphrasing Prepositions with Words of Other Kinds).

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2. Articles

The and a(n) are routinely absent from abbreviated sentences. The can be dropped even from people-naming adjective expressions like the poor (see 6. Adjectives with no Noun 1) and from “proper” nouns that normally have it, such as The West Indies or The Eiffel Tower (see 47. Article Errors with Proper Nouns).

A possible exception might be where the article influences the meaning of the noun, as in the people (= the non-governing citizens) versus people (= human beings), went to the prison (= visited) versus went to prison (= was imprisoned), and in the future (= predicting) versus in future (= warning). For more examples, see 235. Special Uses of “the”.

Articles are also commonly absent from labels on diagrams. This can give a special problem when the labels need to be mentioned in an accompanying text (see 104. Naming Data Sources with “As”), since the articles then need to be restored, which necessitates knowing where they are absent.

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3. Possessive Adjectives

Words like my, our, your and her are alternatives to the before a noun (all belong to the wider class of so-called “determiners” – see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”). They are equally omissible:

(e) Hannibal walked (his) elephants across (the) Pyrenees.

It is obvious that the elephants here belong to Hannibal, even when his is dropped. Possessive adjectives should only be kept in abbreviated sentences when ownership is unclear.

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4. The Verb BE

It is common to drop the normally compulsory uses of this verb, whether as a main verb or an “auxiliary” (see 3. Multi-Use Words). In (a) above, it is a main verb helping to express an arrangement (see 119. BE before a “to” Verb, #4). In the following, it is an absent auxiliary:

(f) “Alien” airship (is) seen by thousands.

When BE is combined with a forward-looking it at the start of a sentence (see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “It”), the it is normally dropped as well:

(g) (It is) rare to find (an) adjective without (a) noun.

The same happens with there sentences (see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences), where BE is also typically present near the start:

(h) (There are) numerous ways to learn a language.

The a is not dropped here before language because language and a language mean different things (see 23. Noun Countability Clues 3).

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5. Prepositions

If a preposition cannot be avoided by using a shorter alternative structure (see above), it might simply be omissible, like this:

(i) Ancient Egyptians wrote (on) papyrus.

Without on here, we would still probably understand that papyrus was where Ancient Egyptians wrote rather than what. In general, prepositions seem omissible if their meaning is obvious from the context. On many occasions, however, they will need to be kept. The preposition of is perhaps one of the most omissible (see 160. Uses of “of”).

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6. Personal Pronouns

These comprise I, you, he, she, it and their related forms. Again, there is not 100% omissibility. It seems most likely when the pronoun is repeating an earlier mention of the same idea, in either the same or an earlier sentence, like this:

(j) When hydrogen nuclei (are) fused together, (they) form helium.

(k) Caesar conquered (the) Britons. Then (he) returned (to) Rome.

Note that the above pronouns could not be left out in ordinary writing – the verbs after them need a grammatical “subject”. Some other languages allow a repeating pronoun to be left out of sentences like (j), where there is a conjunction (when), but English only allows this after a few conjunctions, excluding when. For details, see 36. Words Left Out to Avoid Repetition.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: NOTE-FORM ENGLISH

To assist appreciation and memorization of the above points, readers are invited to put the following sentences into “note” form, using both sentence and word abbreviation. Suggested answers are given below.

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1. A microscope is an instrument that magnifies small objects.

2. There is a subject that communicates more by means of short symbols than through words: it is of course Mathematics.

3. If the price of a good increases, demand for it falls (except in the case of luxury items).

4. The ancient Athenians invented drama and it possessed great importance within their democratic system.

5. It is expected that vehicles able to function without a driver will not be able to go faster than the speed limit.

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Possible Answers

1. Microscope: instrum. magnifies small objects.

2. Subj. where symbols > words = maths.

3. Price increases ⇒ demand falls (except lux. items).

4. Ancient Athenians invented drama; v. important within their democracy. (Note the need for their)

5. Expected vehicles without driver can’t break speed limit.

157. Tricky Word Contrasts 5

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Confusions of similar spellings and/or meanings could be reduced by analyzing them in depth

THE PROBLEM OF TRICKY WORD CONTRASTS

Most users of English have encountered vocabulary items that are easily confused because they resemble each other in spelling and/or meaning. A well-known example – often explained in English language coursebooks – is principle versus principal. The problem is that many of these expressions are never highlighted and can remain completely unrecognised, or at least not fully differentiated.

It is vocabulary pairs like this, especially ones that are likely to occur in professional writing, that are the focus of the present post, just as they are of various others with a similar title (see the “Posts on Specific Words” page for a complete list). Other Guinlist posts that deal with vocabulary confusions include 16. Ways of Distinguishing Similar Words,  44. Troublesome Prepositional Verbs,  94. Essay Instruction Words and 211. General Words for People.

For some grammar confusions, see 129. Differences between Necessity Verbs, 133. Confusions of Similar Structures and 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts. For some pronunciation ones, see 144. Words that are Often Heard Wrongly.

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LIST OF CONTRASTS

1. “No Doubt” versus “There is No Doubt”

Either of these expressions could begin a sentence, like this:

(a) No doubt (There is no doubt) flood victims take years to recover.

One difference is that no doubt refers to the writer’s own doubt (the words I have could be added in front without changing the meaning), while there is no doubt can refer to other people’s lack of doubt as well as the writer’s. Secondly, no doubt rather paradoxically signals a guess by the writer rather than definite truth – recognising that it could be false – and is hence an opinion marker (see 107. The Language of Opinions); while there is no doubt introduces a fact proved by either the writer alone and/or other people.

Various single adverbs can express the same meaning as no doubt, notably certainly, definitely, doubtless(ly), surely, undeniably, unquestionably and, above all, undoubtedly (see 224. Asserting the Truth of what you Say, #1). However, most of these are also usable when the meaning is there is no doubt, so that ambiguity can arise.

Beginning with there is illustrates what I have elsewhere called a “characterising” use of there is (see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences, #6): it helps a comment to be made about the subsequent information – in this case that it is a proven fact. The information in question is linked to there is no doubt by that, though this word is often unmentioned and just understood, as in (a) above (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”).

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2. “At the Moment”, “Nowadays”, “Today” and “Now”

These look like synonyms but are not. At the moment suggests an ongoing temporary situation, often in contrast with the future, like this:

(b) At the moment exchange rates are favourable.

The implication here is that exchange rates may be different tomorrow. American English speakers often use right now instead. For more, see 195. Tricky Word Contrasts 7, #3.

Nowadays, on the other hand, contrasts a current situation with one in the historical past, like this:

(c) Nowadays tobacco smoking is out of fashion.

The suggestion here is that tobacco smoking was more fashionable historically.

Today can refer to the general present as well as a particular day (see 227. Time Adverbs). It could be used in both (b) and (c) instead of the underlined words: it does not automatically make a contrast with a particular other time.

Now could also be used like today, but is perhaps preferred for briefer or more temporary time periods. it has other uses too. One is to suggest that a current situation has come about very recently, like this:

(d) The plane has now landed.

Now can also signal abrupt changes in both the present and the past, for example in sports commentaries (Now Jones passes…). This makes it useful in expositions as a slightly informal “signpost” expression indicating a new topic (see 186. Language in Oral Presentations):

(e) Now it is necessary to consider the consequences.

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3. “Emergency” versus “Emergence”

The first of these tends to be the more familiar to learners of English, no doubt because it is more common in everyday usage. It refers, of course, to a situation that needs an urgent response, such as a sudden serious illness or a disaster.

Emergence, on the other hand, is an “action” noun derived from the verb EMERGE (see 249. Action Noun Endings). It just means “appearing”, as in this example:

(f) Measles are confirmed by the emergence of a rash.

It quite often happens that emergence is understood as emergency. The reason may be more than just unequal familiarity. The fact that the single different letter is the very last one could be significant. Moreover, the multi-consonant ending of emergence in speech is likely to be a problem for speakers of languages that rarely have consonant combinations, such as Swahili, Japanese or Italian: they may be tempted to imagine that there is a spoken vowel at the end, so that they are even more likely to think the word is emergency (for more on this kind of error, see 144. Words that are Often Heard Wrongly).

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4. “In the First Place” versus “In First Place”

In the first place is an adverb-like expression that normally focuses on the whole of its sentence rather than any part (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs). It has the “signpost” function of introducing the first item in a multi-sentence list (see 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists), which means it is also classifiable as a “connector” (see 259. Multi-Word Connectors). It is similar in meaning to firstly or to begin with (but not to first – see 20. Problem Connectors, #8).

In first place, on the other hand, means “in the first position in a competition” (see 296. Tricky Word Contrasts 12, #3). It can be used like either an adjective or an adverb, in the manner of most preposition phrases (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #2). As an adjective, it may follow its noun directly (candidates in first place will…) or be separated by BE or similar (…was in first place). As an adverb, it is usually verb-focussed:

(g) Candidates who finish in first place will be selected.

For further idiomatic contrasts involving the, see 235. Special Uses of “the”, #8.

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5. “Energy”, “Power” and “Strength”

I was alerted to the confusion potential of these words on hearing a Scandinavian acquaintance incorrectly say they had no “power” to walk beyond 20km, when energy or strength would have been more appropriate. In general, power cannot be associated with human physical activity, except metaphorically in sports contexts to mean “exceptional energy/strength”. More often, it means “electricity” or “control”.

The difference between energy and strength in the context of human activity is that the former refers to an amount of physical activity (an energetic person is active for longer than the average), the latter a level (a strong person can perform tasks that average people cannot). It is often the case that strength allows people to be energetic, but not always. The contrast between efficient and effective (114. Tricky Word Contrasts 3) is a similar physics-related one.

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6. “By all Means” versus “By every Means”

Normally, all and every have quite similar meanings (see 169. “All”, “Each” and “Every”), but that is not the case here. Consider this:

(h) The Government aims to alleviate poverty by every means.

The message here is that the Government will use every possible means (= “way”) of alleviating poverty. The word possible is often present just before means.

By all means, on the other hand, is more likely to be found in speech than writing. It says nothing about how something is done, but instead expresses the speaker’s happiness with a requested or suggested course of action. A typical sentence might be:

(i) By all means use the library.

This means “I am very happy for you to use the library”.

The two expressions differ in grammar as well as meaning. By all means is a “sentence” adverb, relating to the whole of the rest of its sentence (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs), while by every means is a “means” adverb, relating just to the verb (see 73. Prepositions for Saying how). The most common error is to use by all means where by every means is needed.

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7. “In the End” versus “At the End”

As with the two previous expressions, the first of these is more likely to be a sentence adverb than the second.  However, both can have this use, and that is where I wish to distinguish them. Consider this:

(j) Rome and Carthage fought for supremacy. In the end, Rome was victorious.

The suggestion here is that the end did not come easily: it followed numerous twists and turns or a great deal of effort. A suitable synonym might be eventually (see 210. Process Descriptions). A point to note is that no suggestion of happiness is made about the end being reached – at last is more suitable for that (see 20. Problem Connectors, #7).

By contrast, at the end just signals a final action or situation, without any suggestion of preceding struggle. Here is a sentence where only it is possible:

(k) The exhibition was held in Seville. At the end, the site became a business park.

Note how at the end must be followed by an event or situation. If you are merely naming the last item in a list, you should use lastly or finally instead (see 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists).

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8. “Wrong” versus “Wrongful”

The adjective Wrongful is particularly used in legal and religious texts to mean “illegal” or “immoral”, and suggests that punishment is likely or desirable. Accompanying nouns tend to be of the “action” kind (see 131. Uses of “Action” Nouns, #1). Typical examples are act, behaviour, conduct, dismissal, entry, interference, neglect, omission and removal.

Wrong, on the other hand, is more widely used and more neutral. It just communicates the undesirability or incorrectness of what it is describing, without necessarily blaming anyone. It will sometimes describe a noun that wrongful can also describe, but not very often. Consider this:

(l) It was a wrong decision to carry a weapon.

Wrongful here would suggest law-breaking, while wrong merely indicates an error of judgement. Nouns that could only have wrong include answer, diet, turning, understanding and way.

156. Mentioning What the Reader Knows Already

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Uninformative information is often necessary but must be phrased appropriately

THE IMPORTANCE OF NAMING THE FAMILIAR

It may seem strange that anyone would want to mention an idea that they expected their reader to know already, but in fact it is a normal aspect of communication. It can happen when something new needs to be said about the familiar idea or, as in the cartoon above, to prove that the speaker has recognised something already known by the listener. Mentioning the familiar is encountered in elementary English courses under such headings as pronouns and the need for the before a noun repetition (see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”).

Elsewhere in this blog there are numerous other indications of how English can acceptably mention something that the reader is expected to know already. One of the earliest is in the post 24. Good and Bad Repetition, where it is shown that repeating a previously-mentioned point or idea can, if done correctly, facilitate such objectives as linking, reminding and clarifying. Repetition for linking is further considered in 5. Repetition with Synonyms, that for clarifying in 286. Repeating in Different Words.

In this post, I wish to present a wider variety of familiarity-suggesting language, in order both to indicate its overall importance in English and to facilitate its study as a topic in its own right. The focus is less on familiarity resulting from an earlier mention, and more on the kind that the writer assumes to exist because the information in question seems common knowledge, or at least something that the targeted readers would not unreasonably be expected to know already.

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SURVEY OF FAMILIARITY-SHOWING LANGUAGE

The following words and structures can suggest that a point is expected to be already familiar to a reader.

1. Subordination

Subordination gives a verb in a sentence a lower rank than other verbs. It often suggests that the sentence is not “about” what that verb is helping to say (see 37. Subordination: Grammar for Good Repetition). Subordination is a very likely location for familiar points and ideas because they too are by definition unlikely to be what a sentence is “about”. The underlined words in the following example are subordinated:

(a) Automation may cause a rise in the number of the unemployed. As unemployment increases, wages will tend to fall.

The subordination here is indicated by the “subordinating conjunction” as. The start of a sentence is usually where such conjunctions have to be to suggest familiarity. However, there are exceptions, such as the use of the fact that instead of just that after BE (see #8 below) and the use of how instead of that after verbs of perception like NOTE and speech like EXPLAIN (see 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #5).

Relative pronouns (who, which etc.) are another important kind of subordinator. Some other grammatical categories (prepositions, “action” nouns, adjectives) are not technically subordinators but can have the same effect. For full details, see the above-mentioned post.

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2. Some Ways of Comparing

Comparisons express a similarity or difference between two or more ideas. Sometimes both of the ideas are expected to be new to the reader, but sometimes only one is. The purpose of involving a familiar idea is usually clarification – making the unfamiliar one easier to appreciate. One way to indicate expected familiarity is with the prepositions like and unlike (see 56. Comparing with “Like” and “Unlike”):

(b) Like motor vehicles, coal stations pollute.

Here, like shows the reader is expected to know already that motor vehicles pollute. They are mentioned only to make coal station pollution more understandable.

Like and unlike are useful when the familiar information is in noun form. When it involves a verb, the conjunctions as (for similarities) and whereas (for differences) are quite common. As sometimes follows just:

(c) Just as water travels to the lowest possible level, so heat transfers to cooler substances.

The verb after just as here is travels. Water travel is expected to be familiar to the reader – the sentence is about heat. The Just as part can go first, as here, or second. When it is first, a later so is necessary (see 64. Double Conjunctions). Whereas, by contrast, is a normal subordinating conjunction, typically needing to start a sentence to indicate familiarity.

In (c), the two similar points have different verbs (travels, transfers). However, use of a single repeated verb is also possible:

(d) The Rockies are new mountains, (just) as the Himalayas are.

This implies the reader already knows the Himalayas are new mountains. Once again the as part can go first or second. When it is second, however, the suggestion of reader familiarity can be removed by placing the verb directly after as (…as are the Himalayas: see 159. Exotic Grammar Structures 2, #1).

For full surveys of how English can express comparisons involving familiar ideas, see 149. Saying How Things are Similar and 216. Indicating Differences.

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3. “not only”

These words are normally combined with a later but also to make a double conjunction. As such, they signal the first of two listed items or statements, rather as both does before a later and. Suggesting the familiarity of the first of these two items or statements is the main reason for using not only instead of both. The negative of not only is any more than (combined with a preceding negative). For full details of all these options, see 64. Double Conjunctions.

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4. “That is why”, “No wonder” and “Of course”

These expressions all act as “sentence adverbs” (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs). They suggest the reader’s familiarity with everything said by the rest of their sentence, rather than just some of it.

That is why indicates that the accompanying familiar information is a consequence of the statement before – a suggestion that makes it like a “connector” (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors). Consider the following:

(e) It is becoming harder to exercise regularly. That is why so many people are overweight.

The underlined words here are clearly a consequence of the point before them, and clearly say something that everyone can see. In this case, the familiarity suggested by that is why is reinforced by the use of so instead of very (see below). The suggestion of familiarity is the main difference between that is why and other consequence connectors like consequently and for this reason (see 20. Problem Connectors).

No wonder also marks a familiar observation as a consequence, but additionally says this should not be a surprise (see 207. Exotic Grammar Structures 4, #5).

Of course makes no link with a previous sentence, merely implying that its accompanying point is familiar to the reader. This is often for politeness: the writer needs to mention the point in question (perhaps in order to comment on it in a later sentence, or simply to remind the reader), but is aware that some people dislike being told things they consider obvious (because it suggests they are unduly ignorant). Of course, in saying “I know you know this”, prevents offence being taken.

For more on politeness, see 166. Appropriacy in Professional English.

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5. “so” before an Adjective or Adverb

An example of this usage is:

(f) The country is so poor because it cannot engage in agriculture.

Here, so poor means “as poor as this”. A writer who did not expect the reader to already know about the poverty in question would probably write very instead of so (see the footnote in 98. “Very”, “Much” and “Very Much”). Note that this use of so + ADJ is different from the one with a following that, as illustrated in 32. Expressing Consequences, where reader familiarity seems less easily assumed.

A less clear-cut usage is in thanking expressions like Thank you so much. The alternative of using very seems to be disappearing, particularly in the USA, probably as a result of politeness conventions. Perhaps the feeling of greater politeness is a logical consequence of implying the hugeness of the thanks to be obvious.

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6. Attention-Focussing “What…” and “It…” Sentences

Sentences of this “cleft” kind are fully described in these pages in 145. Highlighting with “What” Sentences and 190. Special Uses of “it”, #3. Examples are:

(g) What causes the most stress is noise.

(h) It is noise that causes the most stress.

Both types focus attention on wording after is – here noise – in order to leave no doubt that it carries the main information. The information expressed by everything else in the sentence is consequently implied to be familiar to the reader. A more normal wording of (g) and (h) would be Noise causes the most stress.

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7. “whether…or…”

Of the three uses of whether examined in detail in 99. Meanings of “whether … or …”, it is that resembling either that can imply familiarity to the reader. Consider this:

(i) Please write clearly, whether in ink or pencil.

This seems to suggest that the choice between ink and pencil is already familiar to the addressees, perhaps because it has been previously discussed. If this familiarity was absent, the speaker would probably use either instead of whether.

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8. Complements Beginning “the fact that”

A complement is wording needed after BE and verbs like it (see 220. Features of Complements). Complements beginning the fact that include a subject and verb  and are only possible in sentences beginning with certain nouns, such as problem:

(j) The problem is the fact that nobody takes responsibility.

Many unsuitable starting nouns, allowing only that, are of saying or thinking, such as idea, message or word. Other examples of the smallish group of nouns allowing the fact that are advantage, clue and curiosity (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”).

When the fact that is possible, that is an alternative. Choosing the fact that seems particularly to suggest that the reader already knows the subsequent information (see 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1, #2).

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9. TAKE/CONSIDER in Complex Example-Giving

TAKE and CONSIDER can have an example as their object, like this:

(k) Some food crops have a non-food use. Take sugar cane. This can power motor vehicles.

In such statements, the example is not expected to be news to the reader, and the real focus is on the information about it in the next sentence. For a full analysis, see 33. Complex Example-Giving.

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10. Grammar for Altering Word Order

In the absence of anything else, word order gives a clue about what the writer expects the reader to know already. The tendency is for familiar information to be placed at the start of a sentence. What happens, then, if a writer thinks of a possible sentence, but finds it requires the familiar information to be at the end?

Sometimes two grammar structures mean more or less the same but involve different word orders. Switching from one to the other is thus a useful way to achieve a desired word order. Here are six examples:

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¹See 126. Verbs with an Indirect Object
²See 220. Features of Complements, #6
³See 307. Word Order Variations, #3