232. Verbs with an Object + “-ing”

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A verb inside the object of another verb may need -ing rather than to or that

TYPES OF OBJECT + -ing

Verbs have rules about the grammatical forms that can or must follow their active voice form. Some, like CATEGORIZE, need a following noun with no intervening preposition (= object), while others, like EXIST, must have either a preposition + noun or no following noun at all. Overall, at least twelve different grammatical forms can follow an English verb (see 208. Verbs with an Object + Infinitive). No verbs allow all of them, but many allow two or more.

This post is about verbs whose active form allows or requires a following object (noun or equivalent) combined with a particular type of verb in the “gerund” (-ing or having -ed) form, as in this example:

(a) Exercise can KEEP muscles MOVING freely.

A key feature here is that muscles, the object of the first verb (keep), is also the subject of the -ing one (moving). This is not always the case with objects before -ing but it must be a possibility with a verb in order to classify it as like KEEP. Here is an example where it is absent:

(b) The research ANALYSED markets PAYING particular attention to prices.

Here, the subject of paying is not markets, the object of analysed, but the research, its subject. For discussion of sentences like this, see 101. Add-on Participles.

A further requirement of the -ing verbs in question is that they must be as affected by the meaning of the first verb as its object is. Thus, in sentence (a), moving is as much affected by the meaning of keep as muscles is: it is not “muscles” that must be “kept” but “muscle movement”. Here is an example where this kind of link is absent:

(c) These agencies HELP children LIVING in poverty.

Living (in poverty) here is not affected much by the idea of “help” – the helping applies only to children”. Living is a participle, not a gerund, merely indicating the kind of children being helped (see 52. Participles Placed Just after their Noun). Any noun can be “postmodified” in this way (see 253. Descriptive Wording after Nouns 2, #1). Hence, nouns in the object position with this kind of following -ing do not confirm that the verb before them is of the relevant kind.

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OTHER VERB FORMS AFTER A VERB + OBJECT

A major reason for actually listing verbs like KEEP is that the above criteria are still insufficient for recognising them: there are many verbs that meet the same criteria but require a different form than -ing after their object. This is the case, for example, with HELP, the verb in (c). The verb form after an object of HELP that acts like the relevant  -ing type is the to (infinitive):

(d) Agencies ARE HELPING children to live healthily.

For more verbs like HELP, see 208. Verbs with an Object + Infinitive.

Another common link type is a preposition + -ing. For example, to live in (d) could be replaced by with living. For more about verbs with this linking method, see 123. Prepositional Verbs Containing a Noun. 

Other verbs need a conjunction to make a noun after them the subject of a following verb – usually that (e.g. said that X would…). For extensive examples, see 150. Verb Choices with Reported Speech. Some verbs even allow different possibilities for different meanings. For example, TELL (somebody) means “order” before infinitive verbs and “advise” before that… (see 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1, #).

The consequence of such variation is that using the object + -ing structure correctly necessitates knowing which verbs allow it. It is assisting this that is the primary objective here. Below is a large sample of relevant verbs, plus some attempted classifications that might help them to be remembered.

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VERBS ALLOWING AN OBJECT + -ing

To say that some verbs “allow” a following object + -ing is not to say that there is always a free choice about having it. Rather, these verbs need it in particular circumstances and cannot have it in others (see 321. Types of “-ing” Verb after a Verb, #4).

The verbs can be grouped according to the particular circumstance where they need an object + -ing.

1. Verbs Necessitating -ing with Particular Object Types

Consider this:

(e) Caesar foresaw his enemies… .

More words must be added here, typically with an -ing verb such as resisting… or having prepared… (see 267. Participles and Gerunds with “Having”), though to be…+ complement is an alternative. Even if an -ing verb’s meaning is obvious from the context of (e), the verb must still be either present itself or represented by doing so.

Yet if the object his enemies is changed to one representing or implying an action or state, such as resistance or difficulty, no further words are grammatically necessary. In general, FORESEE is a verb that usually needs -ing after objects not representing an action or state.

Other verbs with this need for an object noun before -ing include FORECAST, HOPE FOR, LONG FOR, PREDICT and WARN OF.

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2. Verbs Necessitating -ing when Changing their Meaning

Some verbs need an object + -ing when they have one meaning but not another. FIND with an object + -ing suggests non-purposeful discovery (…found prices rising), but with just an object or object + to verb the discovery is purposeful (…found poverty to be widespread).

DISCOVER with an object + -ing means “accidentally encounter” but with just an object or object + to be it means “come to know” (…discovered x to be 12).

LEAVE with an object + -ing means either “depart from” or “cause to be in a particular condition” (left the village grieving), but with to after an object it means “allow without interfering”.

DEMONSTRATE and SHOW with an object + -ing mean “present” (…showed the machine shaping metal) but with an object + to be or to have mean “prove” (…showed the machine to be effective: see 208 Verbs with an Object + Infinitive, #10).

KEEP with an object + -ing means “maintain” but with just an object means “store” or “preserve”.

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3. Verbs Necessitating -ing meaning “ongoing”

In this case, the relevant meaning belongs to the -ing verb itself. An example is:

(f) Consumers like sellers offering bargains.

Using -ing here draws attention to its verb’s action through time. Using an infinitive (to offer), by contrast, would present the action as more instantaneous. This is a similar choice to that possible after some adjectives, as in it is enjoyable… (see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “it”), or X is happy… (see 203. Expanding an Adjective with Words after it).

Most verbs allowing this kind of -ing after their object have one of three general meanings. LIKE is a like/dislike verb. Similar are LONG FOR, LOVE, PREFER, WANT, YEARN FOR and HATE. However, not all like/ dislike verbs allow the to/-ing choice: only -ing is possible after APPRECIATE, APPROVE OF, DISLIKE, ENJOY, WELCOME, ABHOR, DETEST, DISAGREE WITH and LOATH (see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1, #b). Underlined verbs in both lists can also link with it that… (see 190. Special Uses of “it”, #4).

The second common general meaning of verbs allowing the infinitive/-ing choice is sensation. Relevant verbs are FEEL, HEAR, LISTEN TO, NOTICE, SEE, SENSE, SMELL and WATCH. With these, the choice is better said to involve an “infinitive” than a to verb because to must be dropped (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, #2). The third common general meaning is dependency, with verbs like COUNT ON, DEPEND ON, NEED, RELY ON and REQUIRE. Outside of the three areas, HAVE meaning “cause” also allows the -ing/infinitive choice, the latter again without to (see the end of 116. Rarer Uses of HAVE).

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4. Verbs Necessitating -ing to Make their Object More Precise

With many verbs, a gerund after their object is optional, and clarifies rather than changes meaning. Consider this:

(g) Economists study consumers.

Here, an -ing gerund could optionally follow consumers – e.g. …purchasing goods – thereby making the focus of study more precise. Since -ing participles can also follow objects, as in sentence (c), double meanings are possible, especially with -ing verbs representing a long-term situation, like LIVE or SUFFER, rather than a temporary activity like PURCHASE (see 257. Structures with a Double Meaning 4, #2).

Other verbs like STUDY include the like/dislike ones above that disallow the infinitive – such as ENJOY – plus ACCEPT, AVOID, CATCH (= observe … acting secretly), ENDURE, ENTAIL, FILM, FORGET, HINDER, IMAGINE, INVOLVE, MEAN (= entail), (NOT) MIND, MODEL, NECESSITATE, PHOTOGRAPH, RECORD, REMEMBER, RISK, STUDY, THINK OF (= picture) and TRACK.

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VERBS ALLOWING A POSSESSIVE BEFORE -ing

Some of the verbs listed above allow a possessive instead of object before -ing. Sentence (f), for example, can be reworded:

(h) Consumers LIKE sellers’ offering bargains.

Verbs allowing a possessive include the above-listed like/dislike and cause-effect ones, plus (NOT) AFFORD, APPRECIATE, AVOID, ENTAIL, FACILITATE, FORGET, INVOLVE, MEAN (= entail), (NOT) MIND, NECESSITATE, REGRET, REMEMBER, RESENT, RISK, STOP and UNDERSTAND. One verb type that cannot have a possessive is sense verbs.

There are also some verbs that always need a possessive rather than object before –ing, e.g. ASSIST, ENSURE, and REQUIRE.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: VERB + OBJECT + “-ing”

To develop appreciation of verbs usable with an object + -ing, consider in each case below which of the suggested possibilities fit grammatically (even with strange meaning) into the blank space. Multiple answers are possible..

1. Runners falling behind soon … their hopes of victory slipping away.
(a) KNEW   (b) SAW   (c) ANTICIPATED   (d) ENDURED

2. Uncertainties about a product’s availability can easily … supplies running short.
(a) LEAD TO   (b) MAKE   (c) ENTAIL   (d) CREATE

3. The Government … the economy expanding in the longer term.
(a) WANT   (b) WILL HAVE   (c) EXPECT   (d) PREDICT

4. Can you … everyone treating others with respect?
(a) IMAGINE   (b) BELIEVE   (c) UNDERSTAND   (d) STOP

5. Language learners should … vocabulary being forgotten.
(a)  ACCEPT  (b) MIND   (c) REGRET   (d) PREVENT

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Answers

1 (b), (c), (d);   2 (a), (c);   3 (a), (b);   4 (a), (c), (d);   5. (a), (b), (c), (d).

231. Confusions of Similar Structures 3

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Beware of combining two similar grammatical structures into a single incorrect one

THE ERROR OF STRUCTURE CONFUSION

Grammar errors are not all of the same kind (see 202. Some Strategies for Learning English, “Practice Strategies” #1). This post is about a kind where parts of two confusingly similar correct structures are placed together in what I have called an “impossible combination” (see 100. What is a Grammar Error?). This is quite a common grammar error type, and there are various other Guinlist posts that deal with it (see 133. Confusions of Similar Structures 1).

The similar grammar structures that give rise to such “hybrid” errors need to be distinguished from similar grammar structures that usually do not (see 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1). They should also be distinguished from words with confusingly similar meanings, which are copiously illustrated in Guinlist posts with the title Tricky Word Contrasts. For grammar errors of other kinds than the one considered here, see 10 Words with Unexpected Grammar 1,  142 Grammar Errors with Passive Verbs and 144. Words that are Often Heard Wrongly.

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EXAMPLES OF CONFUSION ERRORS

1. “all that” versus “what”

What used outside of questions resembles the “relative” pronouns which and that. Its special feature is that it means more than they do: not just “which” but “the thing(s) which” (see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses, #4). As a result, what and the words immediately after it (together called “what clauses”) are noun-like – able to replace nouns in a sentence. They are not adjective-like, as clauses with which and that are, because they do not give information about an immediately-preceding noun.

The “thing(s)” meaning inside what may refer to something mentioned at the end of the same sentence, or to something mentioned elsewhere. Compare:

(a) What causes the most stress is noise.

(b) What is harming the environment is a source of concern.

Only in (a) is the noun meaning in what identified by a noun at the end (= noise). For more about sentences of this kind, see 145. Highlighting with “What…” Sentences. In (b), the harm-causing “thing” is assumed to be known already by the addressee.

In both of these sentence types, what can be replaced by the more emphatic all (that), but with different meanings. In sentences like (a), all that would mean “the only thing that”; in sentences like (b), “everything that” (see 293 Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #6).

The impossible combination that is sometimes produced, even by writers whose mother tongue is English, is *all what. It has some logic – one could argue that all is the adjective use, describing the idea of “thing” inside what. In the Standard English version, however, all is considered to be the pronoun use (see 169. “All”, “Each” and “Every”), so that there is no need to repeat the pronoun by means of what, leaving a need instead for just that.

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2. “quite similar” versus “roughly the same”

Quite is a “degree” adverb with rather tricky usage. Before nouns (e.g. quite a struggle), it usually suggests a large quantity (see 313. Adverbs Linked Closely to a Noun). Before a verb, adjective or adverb, it sometimes indicates a relatively weak strength – around 40% – and sometimes a maximum of 100%.

The difference with adjectives and adverbs depends on whether or not they are “gradable” – referring to something that can exist in different amounts (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much). For example, happy is gradable because we can increase or decrease our happiness, but alive is not gradable because there are no greater or lesser amounts of life – if there is less we are no longer alive at all. With gradable adjectives and adverbs quite has the 40% meaning; otherwise the 100% one usually applies.

Similar is a gradable adjective, whereas the same is non-gradable. Thus quite similar means “similar in a few ways”, and quite the same does not. It would therefore be an error to write the latter for the meaning of the former. The meaning of quite with similar could also be expressed with approximately, fairly or roughly (see 149. Saying How Things are Similar). To express this meaning with the same, one could use approximately or roughly, which are not restricted in the way quite is.

On the other hand, if the intention is to say “100% similar”, then quite the same may be a possibility (and quite/roughly similar are definitely wrong). However, quite the same is rare (it more often follows not…, giving the meaning <100%). Much more common is exactly the same. If the meaning is a high percentage just below 100%, not quite the same expresses it negatively, while almost the same is positive.

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3. “so that” versus “so as”

So that is a conjunction of purpose or result (see 32. Expressing Consequences), while so as shows just purpose. In purpose sentences, both need a following verb, but of differing grammatical form. Compare:

(c) Tutors allocate grades SO AS to motivate students.

(d) Tutors allocate grades SO THAT they can motivate students.

(e) Tutors allocate grades SO THAT students will be motivated.

The verb after so as in (c) is in the to (infinitive) form, while the verbs after so that in (d) and (e) are in the ordinary form – and need to include a “modal” verb like can in (d) and will in (e).

Also noticeable is the fact that the to verb after so as does not have a visible subject, while the verbs after so that both do. This is again a general requirement. However, the verb after so as has an understood subject: the same one as that of the main verb allocate (i.e. tutors). This is another general requirement. The compulsorily visible subject after so that, by contrast, may or may not be the same as the main verb’s subject, and if it is it is usually expressed by a pronoun – they in (d).

The common confusion here is to use so as like so that, with a following subject and verb instead of just a to verb. The requirement to use it with just a to verb directly after means that it cannot simply be used instead of so that in sentences like (d) and (e). For fuller details, see 60. Purpose Sentences with “For”.

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4. “equals” versus “is equal to”

The idea of two quantities being the same can be expressed with either the verb EQUAL or the adjective equal. The verb has to be in the active voice with a following object, either a number or a number and measurement word, e.g. 6kg. No preposition is possible before the object – EQUAL is not a “prepositional” verb (see 42. Unnecessary Prepositions). All this means “X = Y” is expressible as either X equals Y or X & Y equal each other.

This use of EQUAL has no passive equivalent (see 113. Verbs that cannot be Passive) – BE EQUALLED expresses the matching of an achievement rather than a quantity. Moreover, EQUAL is rarely in a “continuous” tense: it is mostly in the present simple (with -s after singular subjects, and no ending otherwise). These requirements mean EQUAL can hardly ever follow the verb BE, since BE is only possible with verbs when they are passive or in a continuous-tense.

The adjective equal expresses equality in combination with BE. Typical uses are X is equal to Y or X and Y are equal. As these show, the preposition to is necessary when Y follows equal. This is because adjectives cannot be the only word between two nouns as verbs can. No other preposition is possible (see 111. Words with a Typical Preposition). Note how equal never has an ending – adjectives do not change like verbs.

These verb and adjective uses are clearly easy to confuse. Common errors are *X is equal Y, *X equal to Y, *X equals to Y and *X and Y equal. The urge to add to after the verb may be made even stronger by the fact that CORRESPOND, a synonym of EQUAL, actually does need it (see 292. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar, #1).

To avoid error, it is important to be clear whether it is the verb or the adjective being used. It then becomes possible to apply a pithy summary like “No BE or to with the verb” and “No endings with the adjective”.

For other spellings that can be either a verb or adjective, see 66. Types of Passive Verb Meaning. For more on adjective/verb confusion, see 140. Words with Unexpected Grammar 2, #f. For more on adjective/verb similarities, see 283.  Lesser-Known Facts about Adjectives, #3.

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5. “larger than” versus “large compared to”

Both of these combinations could fit into a sentence like the following:

(f) Mice are … fleas.

The key grammatical point here is that than links with comparative adjectives (or adverbs), such as larger, whereas compared to links with base forms, such as large (see 216. Indicating Differences, #4). It is thus incorrect to say either *large than or *larger compared to. These errors may be especially likely if a speaker’s mother tongue completely lacks comparative adjective forms (see 82. Common Errors in Making Comparisons, #5).

The meaning difference between than and compared to is probably that the latter indicates more: it shows not only a relative difference just as than does, but also that the adjective being used (large above) may not be a typical description of its noun (mice) – that it applies only in the comparison currently being made (i.e. with fleas above). Thus we might conclude from its use in (f) that mice are usually considered to be quite small (see 221. Multi-Word Prepositions, #3).

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6. “certain that” versus “certain to”

Certain is a common means of making confident predictions (see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #2). To do so, it usually combines with either that or to:

(g) It is certain that electric vehicles will become the norm.

(h) Electric vehicles are certain to become the norm.

In sentences like (g), a starting it allows the entire prediction to follow certain that, (see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “it”). By contrast, in sentences like (h), the subject of the prediction (electric vehicles) precedes certain to. The common confusion is to place the subject of the prediction before certain that instead of certain to (*Electric vehicles are certain that… above). The same kind of thing can also happen with said (see 299. Infinitives after a Passive Verb, #2).

230. Multi-Word Conjunctions

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English has numerous word combinations that work together as a conjunction

GENERAL NATURE AND IMPORTANCE

Conjunctions, like other generally recognised word classes (“parts of speech”), tend to be thought of as single words but can also be multi-word. Conjunctions of two, three or even more words can be identified, though usually the last word will be a familiar shorter conjunction like that. Common examples are provided that, as soon as and in case. Some grammarians call one-word conjunctions “simple” and multi-word ones “complex”.

A slightly surprising observation about multi-word conjunctions is their quantity and variety. In this respect, they are rather like multi-word prepositions (see 221. Multi-Word Prepositions) and multi-word connectors (see 259. Multi-Word Connectors) – a reflection of the general similarity between all these word types (see 174. Eight Things to Know about Conjunctions, #2 and #8). The quantity and variety of multi-word conjunctions means that studying them is likely to be a useful language-learning exercise. Here I wish to list the possibilities and analyse various aspects of their form and meaning.

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DEFINING FEATURES

Recognising a multi-word conjunction is often helped by seeing whether it can replace or be replaced by an ordinary one-word conjunction in a sentence without changing the sentence’s overall structure (ignoring changes in the meaning). Consider this:

(a) As soon as the sun sets, mosquitoes become active.

As soon as is indicated to be a multi-word conjunction from the fact that it is easily replaced in this sentence by single-word conjunctions like as, when, after or while. The reason why conjunctions are possible at all is that the sentence contains two ordinary-form verbs (sets and become) – possible together in the same sentence only if they are accompanied by some special linguistic facilitator, or “joining device”, since without one the general rule is that each new verb needs a new sentence (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). Conjunctions are the only kind of joining device that can directly replace as soon as above.

However, there is a problem with this method: not all word groups that can be replaced by a conjunction are true multi-word conjunctions. Consider this:

(b) People may avoid eating meat in the belief that this improves their health.

It is easy enough here to replace in the belief that with the conjunction because, but intuitively the longer phrase is not a multi-word conjunction. I believe that an additional requirement is for a combination to be fixed (see 164. Fixed Preposition Phrases). In the belief that lacks this feature because belief can be replaced by expectation or hope. The best that can be said is that the alternatives are relatively few in number, so that in the belief that could perhaps be considered a borderline case.

As these observations suggest, there is an element of subjectivity in deciding fixedness of conjunction-like phrases, with the result that different people are likely to produce different lists of multi-word conjunctions. However, the examples that I propose below will hopefully still prove useful.

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COMMON MULTI-WORD CONJUNCTIONS

Grammarians sometimes divide multi-word conjunctions into three main groups: those ending in that, those with other endings, and those split by words in between.

1. Conjunctions Ending in “that”

That at the end of a multi-word conjunction is itself a conjunction (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”). In the following examples, the highlighting indicates a link leading to further discussion elsewhere in this blog.

assuming that
considering that
despite (or notwithstanding) the fact that
except that
given that
granted that
*in order that
*in that
*not that
now that
on condition that
once that
provided/providing that
save that
seeing that
*so that
*such that
supposing that
*to the extent that

Mention might also be made of the borderline cases *with the result (or consequence) that and on the understanding (or assumption) that.

Most of the above conjunctions can drop that (leaving it “understood”). Of the exceptions (marked *), some express purpose and/or result, the others mostly limitation. Among the former, so that can show either purpose or result (see 32. Expressing Consequences); in order that expresses just purpose; while such that may express just result. Purpose uses can start a sentence but result ones cannot.

Such that statements can be adjective-like or adverb-like. The former describe a preceding noun (often a subject of BE), with such meaning “of such a kind”:

(c) The new law was such that traders changed their behaviour.

Sometimes, such statements express a classification more than a result, especially if that… describes the same noun as such (e.g. …that it was difficult to enforce above).

The adverb-like use, by contrast, links with verbs. It would exist in (c) if, for example, was became was designed. Such then means “in such a way”. It is often replaceable by so that. However, the latter is more widely usable because it does not always mean “in such a way”.

Sometimes, both analyses of such that are possible:

(d) Draw a line such that every point stands within 1 cm. of it.

Such that here might be linking with either a line or draw.

The limitation conjunctions – in that and to the extent that – again tend to be mid-sentence ones. They often limit a similarity or difference (are similar/different in that…: see 82. Common Errors in Making Comparisons, #7). However, any verb or adjective can have its meaning limited:

(e) The problem was difficult in that it demanded patience.

This means the problem was not difficult in every respect – just in the specified area.

Not that similarly occupies the middle of a sentence (see 269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #1).

Assuming that, considering that and provided that are all similar to if, but more precise. For a detailed analysis, see 179. Deeper Meanings of “if”.

Given that, seeing that and granted that all introduce a reason (see 306. Ways of Giving a Reason, #1), often in support of an argument (see 167. Ways of Arguing 1). Given that and seeing that imply that the information used as the reason is already accepted as true (see 244. Special Uses of GIVE, #7):

(f) Given/Seeing that nobody was injured, no further action will be taken.

The association of given/ seeing that with accepted information makes them common at the start of a sentence, where such information is typically placed (see 37. Subordination). Of course, they are both replaceable by because, but that is neutral about acceptedness, so is as often in the middle of a sentence as at the start. For more about because, see 61. “Since” versus “Because”.

Granted that introduces information that the writer has reluctantly accepted, often from someone else:

(g) Granted that new roads attract extra drivers, what else could ease traffic congestion?

This implies the writer has struggled to accept the point about new roads.

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2. Conjunctions without “that”

Here, the last word is usually a conjunction itself, like that above, but exceptions occur (underlined):

as if or as though
as (or so) long as
as soon as
as though
in case
in order to
insofar as
insomuch as
just as
just because
just when
let alone
rather than
sooner than
so as to
up until

Also notable are some borderline combinations mostly comprising an adverb and simple conjunction. Even is common before as, if or though (see 118. Problems with Conditional “if”, #4). Just meaning “immediately” commonly precedes the temporal conjunctions after, as, before or when. Much frequently precedes as. During which time is sometimes preferable to as, when or while (see 225. Simultaneous Occurrence, #2).

Just as, just because and just when seem true multi-word conjunctions when they have a particular special meaning. Just as must mean “very like”, rather than the temporal “exactly while” (see 149. Saying how Things are Similar). For the special uses of just because and just when, see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #2, and 311. Exotic Grammar Structures 9, #1.

Four expressions above – in order to, so as to, rather than and sooner than – typically link with a base-form (infinitive) verb, rather than an ordinary subject and verb, and the latter two may also have an -ing participle. However, most grammarians still classify them as conjunctions. For details of rather than and sooner than, see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, #3. For details of in order to and so as to, see 60. Purpose Sentences with “For”.

In case is the only conjunction in the list that ends with a noun. It is used differently in British and American English (see 118. Problems with Conditional “if”, #1).

As (or so) long as introduces a condition for a desirable outcome, similarly to provided that (see 179. Deeper Meanings of “if”), but literally suggests as well that the condition and its consequence occur in parallel through time, like this:

(h) Students perform well as long as they work hard.

Sometimes, though, this time suggestion is absent, making the use more metaphorical (see 258. Saying How Long Something Lasts, #3).

Insofar as is another synonym of in that as illustrated in (e) above – which it could replace.

As if and as though introduce a “like” statement about something that is either possibly true or not true at all, depending on the tense of the verb after (see 191. Exotic Grammar Structures 3, #3). Consider this:

(i) It is best to continue as if nothing is happening.

Here, the present tense is after as if suggests that nothing…happening is possibly true. However, was would deny its truth: the message would be that something is actually happening. Note that with a past tense main verb, this distinction is not possible, since the verb after as if must be past even with true events.

As soon as marks an occurrence as earlier in time than one expressed by the main part of its sentence. It differs from when, after and once in such situations in indicating minimal time between the two occurrences. For information about its verb tense requirements, see 171. Aspects of the Past Perfect Tense.

Let alone makes its statement more negative than the one before it (see 191. Exotic Grammar Structures 3, #2).

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3. Conjunctions Split by Words in between

Technically, these are often referred to as “correlatives”. The main ones are:

as…(so)…
just as…so…
both…and…
either…or…
if…then…
neither…nor…
no sooner…than…
not…any more than…
not only/not just…but also..
would rather/would sooner…than…
so/such…that…
whether…or…

For detailed analyses, see 64. Double Conjunctions and 99. Meanings of “whether…or…”.

No sooner…than… is a synonym of as soon as, but starting with no sooner requires the verb’s subject to follow an auxiliary verb or BE (see 307. Word Order Variations, #3).

After would + rather / sooner, the next word is usually an infinitive verb (without to), and the than part can be left unsaid:

(j) Many cyclists would rather wear a silly-looking helmet (than risk serious injury).

The so/such…that… combination only expresses result. After so, there must be an adverb, or an adjective without a noun; after such, there must be a noun, with or without an adjective in between.