35. Words Followed by “to -ing”

.

It is important to know which words need a following “to” + “-ing” rather than a “to” infinitive

THE PROBLEM WITH THE WORD “to”

Why is it right to say I look forward to visiting you and not I look forward to visit you? After all, English does not say *I want to visiting you. The answer is that look forward to and want to have different kinds of to, which require different things after them.

The to after look forward is a preposition, while the other is the to of infinitive verbs (e.g. TO BE, TO HAVE and TO INTRODUCE). It is normal in English for verbs after a preposition to have -ing (cf. 70. Gerunds) and for infinitive verbs not to have it. These opposing uses of to make it a good example of the many small words in English that might be called “multi-use” (see 3. Multi-Use Words).

It is quite easy when you are learning English to think that the to after LOOK FORWARD is the infinitive one, and hence to write the partner verb without -ing (LOOK FORWARD gives other problems too: see 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #1). One possible reason for the error is the similarity of the meaning of LOOK FORWARD to the meanings of verbs that take an infinitive, such as EXPECT, LIKE and WANT (see 140. Words with Unexpected Grammar 2, #c). Another reason may be the fact that prepositional to is quite rare after verbs, so that to doing instead of to do can sound rather strange.

In this post I wish to consider how we know that to is a preposition after LOOK FORWARD, and which other words in English have the same kind of to.

.

TESTS FOR PREPOSITIONAL “to”

A useful way to see if any word is a preposition is to check whether it sounds right directly before the + NOUN (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #1). For example, on, off and near are prepositions because it sounds right to say on the bus, off the bus and near the bus. The “to” of look forward to can definitely be used in this preposition way, as shown in the following example, where the verb visiting has been changed into the noun the visit.

(a) I look forward to the visit. 

The “to” of want, on the other hand, is not a preposition, since it does not sound correct with the and a noun directly after it: 

(b) *I want to the visit.

Behaviour before nouns is not the only way to distinguish the two kinds of to. They also divide sentences in different places: 

(c) I look forward to / visiting you.

(d) I want / to visit you. 

In (c) the to is part of the first verb, while in (d) it belongs to the second. We can prove this by considering what to write when there is no second verb, like this: 

(e) I ……………….. the visit. 

If we put look forward into the blank space here, we still need to; but if we put want, using to is not possible. Thus, to is always needed when look forward is used so must be part of it, but it is not always needed when want is used, so it cannot be part of want.

.

OTHER WORDS WITH A PROBLEMATIC “to”

The verb LOOK FORWARD TO is of the kind commonly called “prepositional”: it ends with a preposition that is more closely linked to it than to any following noun. As indicated above, there are a few other prepositional verbs that also have to. They are similarly easy to link incorrectly with a following verb, and hence might profitably be illustrated here.

The most basic kind of prepositional verb is just two words (see 44. Troublesome Prepositional Verbs). Common examples with to are ADAPT TO, APPLY TO, BELONG TO, CONTRIBUTE TO, RESORT TO and TAKE TO. Examples of their use with -ing are in an exercise at the end of this post. There is also TURN TO, which can have either kind of to depending on its meaning. An example of the prepositional use is:

(f) The speaker then turned to describing some problem cases.

This means the speaker started doing something new (describing problem cases). The use with non-prepositional to, by contrast, is illustrated in the following:

(g) The speaker then turned to write on the board.

The meaning now is that the speaker physically turned his/her body in order to write something behind him/her. The infinitive form to write is actually one of purpose.

A further group of prepositional verbs have a noun between the verb and the preposition (see 123. Prepositional Verbs Containing a Noun). The likelihood of the preposition in these being to seems slightly greater, examples being APPLY ONESELF TO (see 261. Words with Complicated Grammar 3, #1), ATTACH IMPORTANCE TO, ATTRACT SOMEONE TO, DEDICATE SOMETHING/ ONESELF TO, GIVE ATTENTION TO, GIVE EMPHASIS TO, INTRODUCE SOMEONE TO and PUT A STOP TO. Underlining here shows frequent use in the passive voice, with the noun before to moved into the subject position (see 281. Words with Unexpected Grammar 4, #a).

The usual test for the necessity of -ing after these verbs – seeing whether they feel correct with a following noun instead of verb – seems quite easy to apply, since use with a noun is likely to be very familiar. For example, knowing that …introduced the class to Chinese is correct can indicate that …introduced the class to reading in Chinese must also be correct.

Thirdly, there are some prepositional verbs that contain an adverb (grammarians usually call them “phrasal-prepositional”: see 139. Phrasal Verbs). Again, formation with prepositional to is not so rare. Examples are FACE UP TO, GIVE IN TO, GO BACK TO, GO ON TO, GO OVER TO and MOVE ON TO. It is this group to which LOOK FORWARD TO also belongs.

So far, all of the mentioned places where to needs -ing have been after a verb. There are, however, also a few nouns and adjectives with this requirement – hardly surprising given that nouns and adjectives are very commonly able to be expanded by a preposition (see 252. Descriptive Wording after Nouns 1 and 203. Expanding an Adjective with Words after it).

The reason why uncertainty can arise about adding -ing to a verb after a noun or adjective + to is, of course, that many such nouns and adjectives do not allow -ing, preferring a following infinitive instead. This is the case, for example, with the noun need and the adjective willing (see 83. Adjectives before a “to” Verb and 239. Noun Phrases Made with a “to” Verb).

Nouns that do commonly combine with to -ing include addition, alternative (see 266. Indicating Alternatives, #4), approach, equivalence, exception (see the end of 215. Naming Exceptions), introduction, opposition and solution. Note also view in the multi-word preposition with a view to (see 296. Tricky Word Contrasts 12, #4). Adjectives include accustomed, averse, conducive, equivalent, identical, open (= willing), prone, similar, subsidiary, superior and used.

Used (+ to + -ing or a noun) is well-known as a particularly confusing adjective for inexperienced speakers of English. It means “less affected (by something good or bad) because of multiple previous experiences of it”:

(h) Children in nurseries become used to playing with friends.

This says children in nurseries generally increase their familiarity with playing with friends since they often experience it. Used in this sense always needs the following to + -ing or noun. The commonest confusions are with the similarly-spelt passive participle of the verb USE (= “utilised”: see 245. Adjectives with a Participle Ending), and with the past tense of USE placed before an infinitive to describe a discontinued past habit:

(i) Children used to play with friends.

This means children habitually played with friends in the past but do not do so now. Importantly, this kind of used to has no present tense equivalent: to describe a present habit, no form of USE is correct: the habit verb must instead be in the present simple tense alongside a suitable adverb like regularly – regularly play above. One could even use such an adverb with a verb in the past simple tense, replacing the also-correct used to: regularly played in (i).

.

PRACTICE EXERCISE: PREPOSITIONAL VERBS WITH “to”

Rewrite each sentence below so it contains the to verb(s) given in brackets at the end (followed by -ing). Answers are given afterwards. 

1. The government had promised that they would cut taxes. (COMMITTED THEMSELVES TO). 

2. The government did not think it right to cut taxes. (WAS OPPOSED TO) 

3. Children should gradually be shown how to exercise vigorously.  (BE INTRODUCED TO) 

4. Descartes’ Meditationes again discusses the mind-body split. (RETURNS TO) 

5. People who must always sniff glue often fall so low that they steal.  (ARE ADDICTED TO, ARE REDUCED TO) 

6. Do not become a social worker if you do not want to help the poor.  (ARE NOT ATTRACTED TO) 

7. Destroying forests is one way to warm the earth’s atmosphere. (CONTRIBUTES TO) 

8. If a child cannot understand a definition, the teacher may try instead to give examples.  (RESORT TO)

9. Some pleasurable activities need much repetition before people start liking to do them.  (TAKE TO)

10. Humans can quite easily change their behaviour so that they can live in a new climate. (ADAPT TO)

.

ANSWERS 

1. The government had committed themselves to cutting taxes.

2. The government was opposed to cutting taxes.

3. Children should gradually be introduced to exercising vigorously.

4. Descartes’ “Meditationes” returns to discussing the mind-body split.

5. People who are addicted to sniffing glue often are reduced to stealing.

6. Do not become a social worker if you are not attracted to helping the poor.

7. Destroying forests contributes to warming the earth’s atmosphere.

8. If a child cannot understand a definition, the teacher may resort to giving examples.

9. Some pleasurable activities need much repetition before people take to doing them.

10. Humans can quite easily adapt to living in a new climate.

34. Relative Pronouns and Commas

.

WORKERS WHO FIRMS CANNOT AFFORD TO PAY …

Adding commas around a relative clause can change the meaning of its sentence

THE ENGLISH RELATIVE PRONOUNS

The English relative pronouns are usually listed as who, whom, which, that and whose. As pronouns, they act like nouns, i.e. as the subject or object of a verb or as the partner of a preposition. Whose is actually exceptional in this respect, since it cannot do these things; it needs a noun after it to do them instead, which makes it an adjective (see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses). The word “relative” reflects the fact that relative pronouns also resemble conjunctions, since they enable a new verb (placed after them) to be added to a “main” one in their sentence – they cannot be used in a sentence containing only one verb (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop).

The role of a relative pronoun in a sentence is to introduce a description of a noun (or equivalent) placed just before (exceptionally, it is an earlier noun – see 28. Pronoun Errors). The description is adjective-like and hence considered to be an expansion of the noun rather than a separate part of the sentence (see 252. Descriptive Wording after Nouns 1). Consider who in the following English proverb:

(a) People who LIVE in glass houses SHOULD NOT THROW stones.

This means people who deserve to be criticised should not criticise others. The noun just before who is people. The underlined words, which include both who and its verb live, are the adjective-like description of this noun. The main verb of the sentence is should not throw.

The question I wish to address here is when a relative pronoun and its partner description (together called a “relative clause”) should and should not be a parenthesis, punctuated either in the typical way with bracket-like commas (see 50. Right and Wrong Comma Places) or more dramatically with dashes or brackets (see 294. Parentheses). Most English grammar books explain this, but the explanations are rarely easy to follow, and I am hoping to do a little better.

Comma use is not the only problem that relative pronouns give. For some others, see 28. Pronoun Errors,  52. Participles Placed Just after their Noun,  153. Conjunction Uses of “that” and 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses.

.

TEXTBOOK EXPLANATIONS OF RELATIVE PRONOUN PUNCTUATION

The difference between having and not having commas around a relative clause is basically one of meaning. Some rather unhelpful grammar book explanations say that two commas are needed when the information in the relative clause is “unnecessary” or “additional”. These words can be confusing because they are easily misunderstood: if information is unnecessary, why is it given at all? Other grammar books use words like “non-defining” for relatives with commas and “defining” for relatives without commas (common alternatives to “defining” include “specifying”, “identifying”, “classifying” and “restrictive”). All of these names are useful only if you know what is or is not being defined etc., and the manner of the defining.

In answer to the first question, the person or thing that is or is not being defined etc. by a relative clause is usually the person / thing expressed by the noun before the relative: people in the example above . Regarding the second question, the manner of the “defining” may be better understood by separating the nouns before a relative into two types: those with plural meaning and those with singular meaning.

.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS AFTER NOUNS WITH PLURAL MEANING

Plural meaning is understandable from most plural nouns and some singular ones. It is expressed by singular nouns when they represent a general quantity or group, as in Exercise preserves health or A pen is a weapon (for more about “general”, see 89. Using “the” with General Meaning).  Such nouns usually lack an article if they are uncountable, like exercise above, or have a(n) if countable, like pen (see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”).

The relative pronoun punctuation rule after nouns with plural meaning is that commas show all of the noun idea is meant, while no commas show some. When “some” is meant, the relative clause tells us which ones or which part.  It is this idea of telling us which that words like “defining” try to communicate. Knowing the rule helps us to see that sentence (a) above is about some people, not all.

Sentence (a) is actually quite easy to understand because the meaning of “some” can be recognised even without considering the punctuation. Not all relative pronoun sentences are so easy though. Which of the following is correct?

(b) (The) reforms which Napoleon introduced were long lasting.

(c) The reforms, which Napoleon introduced, were long lasting.

In fact, either of these could be correct depending on what we mean. The first, with no commas, shows that some reforms (the subgroup introduced by Napoleon) were long lasting. The word the occurs at the start because the subgroup of reforms being given after it can be considered particular ones. In the second sentence, the two commas mean that no subgroup of reforms is being given, so we must understand that all of the reforms are meant.

But what is meant by the reforms? They are not “all reforms” (because that would be reforms), and they are not a subgroup resulting from which. They are, in fact, an already explained subgroup. The clue to this fact is another use of the, meaning “the ones that have just been explained”. In other words, we must look to the previous sentence to find out what the reforms are, and not to the relative clause. Thus, sentence (c) could be paraphrased as “All of the previously-defined subgroup of reforms (which were also Napoleon’s ones) were long lasting”.

For more on who after a plural noun, see 138. Test your Command of Grammar (#18) and 288. Grammatical Subtleties (#2). For comma usage making the “all/some” distinction with other English words besides relative pronouns, see 52. Participles Placed Just After their Noun,  53. “As”, “Like” and “Such As”,  54. Listing 1: Incidental,  77. Apposition (Pairing of Same-Meaning Nouns) and 289. Exotic Grammar Structures 8, #3.

.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS AFTER NOUNS WITH SINGULAR MEANING

Singular meaning is mostly expressed by non-general singular nouns, like this:

(d) Alexander the Great was struck by an illness that proved fatal.

In addition, singular meaning can be expressed by general singular nouns representing something unique. These may be ordinary nouns like the greenhouse effect (see 89. Using “the” with General Meaning) or “proper” nouns like London (see 47. Article Errors with Proper Nouns), like this:

(e) London, which is the capital of the UK, has a population of over seven million.

The punctuation rule after nouns with singular meaning is that commas show the noun idea to be the only one in existence, while no commas show it to be one of a group. When others exist, the relative pronoun without commas helps tell us which one of all the possibilities is meant. It is this idea of telling us which one that words like “defining” try to communicate.

In sentence (d), the absence of a comma before that suggests Alexander suffered many illnesses, and the words after that show how the one mentioned is different from the others. In (e), the comma before which suggests there is only one London, so that the following words are not showing which one is meant but are rather just describing that one.

The meaning created by the punctuation next to the relative pronoun in sentences (d) and (e) is again quite easy to see because it matches what we already know about the world. However, quite often our knowledge of the world will not help us. Consider this:

(f) The student cafe, which is on the campus, is always open.

Some colleges have just one student cafe, while others have more than one. In the case that the above sentence refers to, we have to rely on the commas to know that there is just one student cafe. Moreover, the same sentence could be written without commas, and then it would show that there was more than one student cafe.

In fact, even names like London can often be used without commas as well as with. This is because the same name is often possessed by different people or places. Consider this:

(g) The London that is in Canada is sometimes confused with the one in England.

In these cases, it is normal to have the before the name. If we removed the commas from sentence (e), so that the relative pronoun there was helping us to know which London was meant, again we would need to begin with the. It may be asked how we can ever suggest that there is only one London, as in (e), when in reality there are others. The answer is that speakers often use London (and other names) to mean “the one that we are familiar with” rather than “the only one”.

.

WHEN TO USE “which” AND WHEN TO USE “that”

Understanding the use of commas is vital for choosing correctly between which and that in relative clauses that are not about humans. The rule is simple enough:
.

Relatives Without Commas

Use which or that

.

Relatives With Commas

Use which

Beware of computer grammars that tell you to use only that without commas; the truth is that which is nearly always possible too (for more on the unreliability of computer grammars see 68. & 69. How Computers Get Grammar Wrong). It is only in some special cases where which is not possible, such as after the same (see 87. “Same as” versus “Same that”) or all (see 231. Confusions of Similar Structures 3, #1), or a superlative adjective:

(h) This is the best thing THAT could have happened.

Now here is a small exercise through which understanding of the above points may be checked.

.

EXERCISE: Decide which sentences below need two commas (or one comma and a full stop). Answers are given below.

1. Entebbe Airport which is near Kampala is Uganda’s main entry point.

2. The area of a circle can be calculated using pi which is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter.

3. The Prime Minister who is the head of the government is formally appointed by the President.

4. Students should be prepared to question a lecturer who is not clear.

5. Students should be prepared to question a lecturer whose job it is to answer questions.

6. A vowel is a sound which is made by the vocal chords while air is passing without obstruction through the mouth.

7. Traffic lights which control traffic by showing three different colours in a predictable sequence are similar to language.

8. Workers who firms cannot afford to pay have to lose their jobs.

.

Answers: 1 = commas after Airport and Kampala;   2 = comma after pi;   3 = commas after Minister and government;   4 = no commas;   5 = comma after lecturer;   6 = no commas;   7 = commas after lights and sequence;   8 = no commas.