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Superficiality can take many different forms, causing English to have numerous words for it
DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE
To say that something – beauty, for example – is superficial is to suggest that its real nature is worse than its observable one. Unsurprisingly, this is a common kind of suggestion in analytic writing, where there is usually a keen concern for truth. The result of such common use is that English has developed a wide variety of ways to express the idea of superficiality, just as it has for other common meanings like illustration, consequence, possibility and importance.
Most of the options for indicating superficiality are vocabulary rather than grammar. For this reason, the focus here is on listing and explaining the meanings of key words and phrases. However, grammatical properties and requirements will be indicated and explained where that seems necessary.
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WORD CATEGORIES
1. Verbs
SEEM, APPEAR, LOOK
The most obvious use of these verbs is to indicate uncertainty about the truth of a situation without actually establishing it as false (see 96 Making Statements More Uncertain 2, last section). However, in the right context they do often indicate falsehood:
(a) Horizons only seem to form straight lines.
If only here is understood to link with seem rather than with horizons, form or straight lines, it usually suggests falsehood. Other words that do the same include might and always.
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PRETEND
This verb, normally used with a human subject, can be followed by to, that or a noun object. It mostly implies a conscious effort by its subject to convey something different from reality:
(b) The Greeks pretended their wooden horse was a parting gift.
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FEIGN
Similar to PRETEND with a noun object, FEIGN means “suggest a non-existent characteristic of oneself (belief, weakness etc.) or a non-intended behaviour in order to deceive”:
(c) Feigned manoeuvres are often necessary in a team sport.
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SIMULATE
Again carrying the idea of “act in the manner of something that it is not”, SIMULATE does not necessarily imply an intent to deceive. Typically used, like FEIGN, with a noun object, it may indicate a legitimate purpose such as service or research:
(d) Artificial intelligence simulates real-world thinking.
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2. Adjectives
Superficiality adjectives tend to be usable with particular types of noun. For example, superficial can combine with quality-naming nouns like beauty, but not usually object-naming nouns like cup.
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SUPERFICIAL
Like SEEM and SIMULATE, this adjective often lacks the suggestion of deception. It may merely indicate that its noun is on the surface of something, as in superficial burns or patterns, or it may suggest incompetence, as in superficial thinking. Common nouns that are, like beauty, more likely to carry the deception idea include acquiescence, impression, manner, success and willingness.
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SKIN-DEEP
This mostly shares the ability of superficial to indicate position as easily as deception. In the latter case, it links with quality-naming nouns like beauty, affection and support.
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SPECIOUS
It is mainly nouns naming a type of justification that this adjective can combine with, such as argument, case, excuse, justification, rationale, reasoning, theory and thinking. The suggestion is that the justification is deliberately misleading.
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PLAUSIBLE
Justification types are common with this word, as they are with specious, but it also allows linkage with other speech and thought nouns, such as assumption, belief, explanation, idea, prediction and statement (see 287. Speech and Thought Nouns). Names and descriptions of people too are describable:
(e) A decision was based on the evidence of a plausible witness.
To describe someone’s name, it is necessary to place plausible after it with a link verb like BE in between:
(f) Schultz was plausible in explaining his absence.
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MISLEADING
To mislead is to cause people to think that something is different – often better – than it really is. This outcome does not have to be intended, but it often is. Typical partner nouns of the adjective might be advice, argument, evidence, publicity, representation, statement and testimony.
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SEEMING, APPARENT
These may express the same varying meanings of their related verbs (see #1 above). However, apparent is more restricted in its meaning if its noun is placed before it, separated by a link verb like BE. Compare how doing this below results in a different meaning from that of apparent success (= success that appears to have been achieved but has not really):
(g) The success of the project was apparent.
Now, apparent means “obvious”. For a detailed explanation, see 132. Tricky Word Contrasts 4, #7.
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SUPPOSED
The meaning of this -ed adjective resembles the passive one of its related participle derived from the verb SUPPOSE (see 81. Tricky Word Contrasts 2, #3). Sometimes, it simply adds the idea of “believed” to its partner noun, but often it also implies its user’s personal scepticism about the truth of the belief. For example, a supposed success is likely to indicate a success that most people believe is real but the speaker does not.
If used without a following to verb (infinitive), supposed must normally go directly before its noun rather than after it with a link verb in between. It seems able to combine with a wide variety of positive and negative nouns. Besides outcomes like success, it may, for example, describe people (a supposed villain), human and non-human qualities (supposed enthusiasm, depth) and positions (supposed status).
For more about participle versus adjective uses of -ed, see 250. Adjectives with a Participle Ending.
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OFFICIAL
This word most commonly asserts the truth of an accompanying statement or idea by saying has been made or endorsed by an authoritative body such as a government or leading religious figure:
(h) The plans to raise taxes are official.
The suggestion of falsehood is most likely when official precedes a noun idea that most people know to be unreliable, like explanation, journey time or story:
(i) The official explanation of the move is poor weather.
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THEORETICAL
Like official, theoretical occasionally questions the truth of an authoritative idea or statement. It is especially likely to refer to something in the future. The authority may again be an expert, but it could just be experience or logic:
(j) There is a theoretical chance of bad weather tomorrow.
This would often suggest that bad weather tomorrow had been indicated but for the speaker was unlikely.
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3. Adverbs
Most of the above adjectives can be made into similar-meaning adverbs by adding -ly (apparently, misleadingly, officially, plausibly, seemingly, speciously, superficially, supposedly, theoretically). In addition, there are some colourful preposition phrases:
at first sight (= different from what later sights indicate)
on paper (= theoretically)
on the surface (= superficially)
to the untrained eye (= different from what experts see)
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4. Nouns
Again, there are some derivatives from the adjectives: plausibility, speciousness, superficiality. From the verbs there are also appearance, look, pretence and simulation.
Outside of these, there is impression, usable very like appearance, but with more suggestion of associated (dis)belief. If it is the subject of a verb, it is likely to be along with either of + noun or that + statement, each placed either directly after or with a link verb in between, e.g. The impression that/of… grew greater; The impression was that/of… (see the end of 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”). If impression is the object of a verb, the verb is likely to be GIVE (= create) or HAVE (= possess), and a following that… or of… is again common.
Appearance and look are similarly usable with of (but not that). As a verb object, appearance again allows the GIVE/HAVE choice, but look tends to allow only HAVE.
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5. “As if”
These words can sometimes question the truth of a statement by changing the tense of its verb. Consider this:
(k) Animals act as if they are machines.
The present tense of are suggests that the speaker believes in the stated idea that animals are machines. With past-tense were instead of are, by contrast, the suggestion would be of doubt.
As another example:
(l) The building looks as if an earthquake has/had hit it.
Here, has hit suggests acceptance that an earthquake may really have happened, while had hit does not.
In both of these examples, the verb before as if (act, looks) is in a present tense. If it were past instead, the acceptance distinction cannot be made. For a fuller explanation of as if, see 191. Exotic Grammar Structures 3, #3.
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