306. Ways of Giving a Reason

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Language choices for giving a reason vary widely

NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF REASONS

Reasons rank alongside consequences, examples, comparisons, exceptions and definitions as a key feature of factual and theoretical writing. They are especially important in argumentation (see 167. Ways of Arguing 1). Like other key writing features, they can be expressed in a wide variety of ways, some very basic and some quite esoteric. This post attempts to survey the main possibilities, indicating subtle differences of grammar and meaning that sometimes occur.

First, however, there is a need to establish clearly what is meant by a “reason”. Obviously, reasons say why. However, that is not enough to define them since purposes, motives, explanations and causes do the same.

A purpose is a future event or situation that a living being seeks to achieve through behaving in a particular way (see 60. Purpose Sentences with “for”). A motive is similar, but involves a more personal future gratification (see 276. Tricky Word Contrasts 11, #3). Reasons too may be either an event or a situation causing an action, but this may be either past or future, and there does not have to be any living being involved.

If “reason” is a wider term than “purpose” and “motive”, it is narrower than “explanation”: what is explained is sometimes something other than a reason, such as a meaning. Moreover, “explanation” often involves a more detailed indication of why.

“Cause” is perhaps the closest in meaning to “reason”. It is an event or situation leading to the occurrence or existence of one after it. The main difference between a cause and a reason is the possible timing relative to the consequence: causes before it, reasons either before or after. This results in both cause and reason being usable to refer to what is clearly a cause, but only reason being usable when the timing is either unclear or in the future. Consider this:

(a) The reason for the delay was unclear.

Here, allowance is made for the delay resulting from either an obstruction like a traffic jam (where cause of would be equally usable), or a mind-based purpose like avoiding a speeding ticket (where cause of would be less likely).

An additional feature of reason is its preference in descriptions of logical thinking: one would normally, for example, refer to the basis of a conclusion or generalization as its reason rather than as its cause. This is one reason why reason-giving is so important in argument.

The association of reasons with outcomes or logical ideas usually means that giving a reason requires mention of one of these too. It is important to appreciate, though, that not all co-occurring mentions of a reason and a consequence can be described as “reason-giving”. Consider this:

(b) Traffic congestion is constant here, so a wider road is needed.

Although the underlined words are a reason for what is said after them, they could be dismissed as reason-giving because they are not understandable as a reason while they are being read. Their aim is to inform the reader of something that is not expected to be already known, as a prelude to naming its consequence with so (see 32. Expressing Consequences). One way to highlight these words as a reason would be by making them the second half of the sentence after because, with so dropped.

The consequence that needs to be mentioned with a reason may, like other kinds of “partner” information, be in the same or a neighbouring sentence.

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SINGLE-SENTENCE REASON GIVING

A reason given in the same sentence as its consequence may or may not come first. If it does, normally the only feature of it that is expected to be new information to the addressee will be its status as a reason for what follows. Moreover, it will not usually be the focus of the sentence (see 37. Subordination). Later-placed reasons, by contrast, may or may not have expected familiarity to the addressee, and they will tend to be the focus of the sentence.

There are various types of language that enable a reason and its consequence to co-occur in the same sentence.

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1. Conjunctions

In sentences starting with a reason, a reason-showing conjunction is usually the first word. It is likely to be as, if, because or since. Note the difference between the following uses of as:

(c) As lead is poisonous, it is no longer added to petrol.

(d) As unemployment increases, wages tend to fall.

In (c), as purely indicates a reason, whereas in (d) it also marks two events as simultaneous (see 225. Simultaneous Occurrence, #2). I consider only the use in (c) a true reason indicator. Only there can because be used without modifying the meaning.

If introduces a likely but not certain reason (see 179. Deeper Meanings of “if”, under “Likely Conditions”).

Since indicates a logically predictable reason. Both of the the following sentences (from 61. “Since” versus “Because”) allow because, but only one also feels natural with since:

(e) … the sun is hottest at the Equator, pressure is lowest there.

(f) … the defendants were provoked, they used violence.

Since seems to fit (e) better than (f) because the outcome (low pressure) is a logical and inevitable outcome of the reason. The outcome in (f) is neither of these: it is just one of many fairly predictable possibilities. Since would also be possible in (c), even though the outcome is not inevitable, in order to emphasise its logicality.

Three alternatives to since are granted that, given that and seeing that. The first marks the reason as information supplied by somebody else; the others perhaps highlight its established familiarity (see 230. Multi-Word Conjunctions, #1).

All of the above conjunctions are also usable in the middle of their sentence, before a sentence-ending reason. Two others – for and the reason being (that) – are only found in that position.

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2. Prepositions

Whereas reasons after a conjunction would without the conjunction be a complete sentence, those after a preposition would not (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #4). However, reasons after a preposition are more flexible: able to combine with a consequence in either an adverb-like way, like reasons after a conjunction, or an adjective-like way, with the consequence in noun form.

A typical reason preposition is because of. Compare how …because of the strength of the sun fits into each of the following:

(g) Pressure falls at the Equator…

(h) Low pressure at the Equator is…

The use in (g) is adverb-like, giving a reason for the action of the verb falls, whereas that in (h) is adjective-like, giving a reason for the noun idea low pressure (the two being linked by is: see 220. Features of Complements).

English has numerous prepositions that could indicate a reason. The majority – through, with, out of, because of, as a result of, due to, down to, over, owing to, on account of, thanks to, courtesy of – are also cause-showing. For a detailed overview, see 72. Causal Prepositions. In addition, there are behind (see the next section) and in view of (see 296. Tricky Word Contrasts 12, #4).

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3. Verbs

The verb BE, along with wording suggesting “reason”, is the simplest for indicating a reason alongside its consequence in a single sentence:

(i) Gravity is (the reason) why unsupported objects fall.

(j) Gravity is the reason for unsupported objects falling.

(k) Gravity is behind unsupported objects falling.

(l) The fall of unsupported objects is due to gravity.

In all these sentences, the reason (gravity) and its consequence comprise or belong to the subject and complement of is.

The why after reason in (i) is necessary because the subsequent words (specifying the reason) are a subject-verb statement. It must be mentioned if reason is dropped, but otherwise it can be left unmentioned but understood. In (j), why is replaced by the preposition for (not of!) because the following words (objects falling) are a noun phrase rather than a statement.

The idea of “reason” in (k) is in the preposition behind – an extension of its basic meaning (see 229. Metaphorical Prepositions). In (l), gravity is marked as a reason by the multi-word preposition due to.

In (i), (j) and (k), the underlined words are replaceable by explains. If (i) and (j) had a reason instead of the reason, helps to explain would be better. In (j) and (k), underlies is also possible. In (j), (k) and (l), is linked to is a further option, while (l) (which ends with the reason) additionally allows is attributed to and is explained by.

The active form of ATTRIBUTE…TO, along with less formal PUT…DOWN TO, is useful for reporting someone else’s mention of a reason (see the end of 150. Verb Choices with Reported Speech, #1).

Underlies seems especially suited to stative consequences, e.g. …underlies a desire for riches. For more about it, see 81. Tricky Word Contrasts 2, #6.

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NEW-SENTENCE REASON GIVING

A reason given in a separate sentence from its consequence usually follows it. Often, its reason-giving status will be understandable without the help of any special language (see 18. Relations between Sentences). However, help is possible with the following types of expression.

4. Connectors

Connectors are adverb-like indicators of a meaning link between adjacent sentences. They very commonly go at the start of their sentence before a comma, but most can also come later between two commas (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors). The main reason-giving connectors are this is because… and the reason is that…. Less common is it could be that… (see 289. Exotic Grammar Structures 8, #2).

When multiple reasons exist, signalling the first with for one thing shows this without necessarily requiring any more to be named. If more do need naming, though, they can follow in further sentences, common introducers being for another (thing), furthermore or moreover. Occasionally, instead of for one thing it may be necessary to say it is not just (that) (see 228. Exotic Grammar Structures 5, #2).

An alternative approach with multiple reason sentences is to start with a sentence indicating that multiple reasons exist and are about to be listed, and then to put each reason in a new sentence, along with a list connector like firstly, to begin with, secondly (etc.) or next. For examples, see 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists.

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5. Connector Synonyms

Many words can express the meaning of a connector without actually being one (see 112. Synonyms of Connectors). Consider, for example, the following use of link:

(m) Some people prefer to drink water from beneath the ground. They typically link this to the mineral content of such water.

All of the verbs listed in #3 above seem able, like LINK above, to accompany a new-sentence reason as well as a same-sentence one.

Many nouns are also able to act as a synonym of a reason connector. Common ones include basis, factor, grounds, justification, link, motivation, motive, reason and source.

297. Types of Response to a Question

 

Some types of question require an unusual or challenging type of response

DEFINITION OF A QUESTION RESPONSE

Defining a question response first requires clarification of what is meant by a question. I see questions as spoken or written utterances that have the linguistic form of a direct or indirect question, as in these descriptions:

DIRECT FORMS: question-indicating intonation and/or grammar (the position of a subject noun relative to its verb) and/or punctuation (a question mark).

INDIRECT FORMS: a starting question word or equivalent noun and, typically, location within a longer sentence alongside an expression of asking, explaining or knowing (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing).

A response to a question is not necessarily an answer. Answers supply information requested by a question, but questions only sometimes request information. For example, direct questions beginning What about…? commonly act as a reminder, to which a positive response is typically Thank you (see 274. Questions with a Hidden Meaning, #1). The word “response” is a much more inclusive name for a statement or deed elicited by a question.

Yet although responses to questions are more numerous than answers, they are still not inevitable with every question: some questions have no response at all. These are usually of the kind called “rhetorical”. An example is How about that? uttered in appreciation of the successful execution of a difficult manoeuvre (see 274. Questions with a Hidden Meaning, #21).

On the other hand, some rhetorical questions do have a response. These are questions responded to by the person posing them. Their responses are considered here along with those of ordinary questions.

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RESPONSES TO SPOKEN QUESTIONS

Different types of spoken question require different types of response. Here, the focus is on types whose response is quite often formulated incorrectly by less-experienced English users.

1. Simple Yes/No Questions

This elementary question type, typically indicated by question intonation added to either an ordinary statement or one whose subject + verb has been placed after an additional (“auxiliary”) verb, is so named because, of course, its response is usually either yes or no. What is less often appreciated, however, is that one of these words by itself can sound abrupt or even rude, so that it often needs to be mitigated by a following auxiliary verb with a pronoun subject:

(a)    – Do computers have feelings?

– No, they don’t

Errors are common here because the choice of both the pronoun (they) and the auxiliary verb (do) depends on the wording of the question. Usually, the pronoun must correspond to the subject of the question verb, and the auxiliary must be the same as the one there. It would be incorrect above to repeat the main verb (*No, they haven’t). This is an error that seems especially likely when the main verb is HAVE, probably because of the usability of HAVE elsewhere as an auxiliary. Indeed, No, they haven’t would be correct above if do…have… in the question were replaced by its less formal alternative have…got….

As implied earlier, the type of response illustrated in (a) is not the only possibility. Sometimes, for example, yes or no is followed by an adverb (e.g. No, never). Sometimes, yes/no is dropped, leaving just a pronoun + auxiliary, or something altogether different (Well, this is a complicated question).

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2. Negative Yes/No Questions

Questions of this kind can be confusing because they have two very different uses. Compare:

(b) Aren’t diamonds an expensive gift?

(c) Aren’t diamonds as valued as they used to be?

Sentence (b) expects the addressee to agree that “diamonds are an expensive gift”. The expected agreement would normally be indicated with the words Yes (they are). Disagreement, though unexpected, would be possible with No (they aren’t).

Sentence (c) could also be seeking agreement (with the belief that the value of diamonds has not changed), but it might instead be asking the addressee to confirm or deny a negative (that diamonds are less valuable than before), without indicating any expectation about the answer. Confirmation would be with No (they aren’t), denial with Yes (they are).

In both sentences, an alternative to the negative -n’t is the independent word not in the same place or after diamonds. Note how, regardless of the meaning, yes responses always accompany a positive auxiliary (are above), and no ones need a negative (aren’t): *Yes, they aren’t is usually incorrect.

I think the reason why sentence (b) is more likely than (c) to be soliciting agreement is that it involves a more universally-known fact. Most people know that diamonds are expensive, so that a question seeking information about their cost level would be surprising. Sentence (c), by contrast, involves information of a much less universally-known kind (the value of diamonds today compared to in the past), making its purpose less easy to interpret.

The same sort of logic applies to sentences that, unlike (b), involve an untrue statement:

(d) Doesn’t helium react easily with other elements?

Although someone saying this could genuinely believe helium to be very reactive, and hence be seeking confirmation, the actual non-reactive nature of helium would lead most people to conclude that the speaker just wanted to know how reactive helium is. A suitable answer would, of course, then be No (it doesn’t).

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3. Questions with “Would you Mind…?”

This type of yes/no question is tricky to ask as well as to answer. It is a polite way of naming a specific action that the speaker is either requesting the addressee to carry out or seeking permission for themself or someone else to carry out. A requested addressee action typically begins with an -ing verb:

(e) Would you mind lending me your pen?

On the other hand, an action for which permission is being sought is usually expressed with either if plus a statement containing a past tense verb, or a possessive noun/adjective plus an -ing verb:

(f) Would you mind if I borrowed (or my borrowing) your pen?

The past tense (borrowed) is needed here because the action may never happen – a usage often called “unreal” (see 118. Problems with Conditional “if”, #6).

Answering would you mind questions is problematic because it requires a decision about which of the two verbs within them a yes/no answer should relate to. With a wrong choice, an opposite message to the intended one will be conveyed. Consider sentence (e). If the response should focus on mind, then yes means “I mind” (= “I don’t want”), so that a refusal is indicated. However, if the response to (e) should focus on lending, yes means “I agree”, and hence cooperation. The correct linkage is in fact with mind – logical given that it is grammatically the “main” verb in the sentence.

Once again, a bare yes or no answer is rare. Possible alternatives include:

POSITIVE, SENTENCE (e): (No,) of course not;  Not at all
POSITIVE, SENTENCE (f): No problem;  Go ahead;  Feel free
NEGATIVE, SENTENCE (e): Sorry, I can’t
NEGATIVE, SENTENCE (f): I would actually;  Sorry, that’s not possible

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4. Questions about Alternatives

These questions typically contain or (preceded by whether when indirect: see 99. Meanings of “whether…or…”):

(g) Is it better to travel by road or train?

Two interpretations are normally possible: that the verb (travel) is the focus, implying equality of the alternatives; or that the alternatives are, implying their inequality (see 301. Structures with a Double Meaning 5, #3). The first interpretation allows a yes/no answer, but answering the second similarly would cause confusion.

To name one of the alternatives as an answer, repetition is necessary (e.g. By train). However, naming one of the alternatives is not always appropriate. Other common answers include Both, Neither, It depends, I’m not sure, Let me think and There’s no difference.

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5. Questions Answered by the Person Asking them

This type of rhetorical question is common in both speech and writing. Whereas in writing the form is likely to be indirect and the answer to follow without any special wording (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing), in speech, direct questions are much more common, and their answer is very often prefaced by well. Here is a sequence typical of oral presentations (see 186. Language in Oral Presentations, #2):

(h) Now, what is the commonest language learning aid? Well, of course it is a dictionary.

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QUESTION RESPONSES IN WRITING

There are various types of question that writers may respond to besides their own rhetorical ones.

6. Questions Only Written in Another Text

Responses under this heading include essays, examinations and other means of educational assessment, plus some business types like emails, all of which tend to be multi-sentence. For detailed advice on answering essay questions, see 94. Essay Instruction Words.

A common way of linking an extended response to an external question is by repeating part of the latter in the first sentence. Consider, for example, the following start of an essay answering the question Account for the growth of mobile telephone use and discuss its likely future:

(i) Mobile telephone use has grown phenomenally in the past ten years.

Underlining here indicates the repetition. For more about linking with repetition, see 24. Good and Bad Repetition.

Responses to external questions asked with a question word (how, where etc.) often start with a noun synonym of that word. For example, a response to a how… question might begin The way in which…, and one to a why… question might start There are many reasons … (see 185. Noun Synonyms of Question Words).

Repetition of question wording can also appear later in written responses:

(j) Turning to the future of mobile telephones, …

(k) Given these factors, mobile telephone use is likely to keep growing for some time yet.

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7. Reported Yes/No Questions

A common context for questions of this kind is academic literature reviews:

(l) Schmidt (2021) wonders whether handwriting skills will survive.

The simplest way of answering such questions uses the standard pronoun + auxiliary (the auxiliary usually being DO if the question lacks one). A “no” answer just adds not, e.g. they will not in response to (l). A “yes” answer needs no added word but often includes a formal synonym of yes, such as indeed or certainly (see 152. Agreeing and Disagreeing in Formal Contexts, #2).

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8. Reporting a Question + Response

When both a question and its response have to be reported, yes/no responses can just comprise a pronoun + auxiliary after a reporting speech/ thought word:

(m) Historians wonder whether recovery occurred. Jones (2021, p. 6) thinks IT DID (or DID not).

Sometimes, not alone directly follows the reporting word (…thinks not).

An alternative approach is to imply “yes” or “no” with an adjective or adverb:

(n) …. Jones (2021, p.6) takes a pessimistic view (or responds pessimistically).

Reported responses to questions beginning with a question word usually have a pronoun (often it) + BE + relevant information:

(o) Historians wonder why/when recovery occurred. Jones (2021, p. 6) thinks IT WAS because… (or when…).

295. Options in Saying Where

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Indicating the location of something involves much more than just prepositions

THE VARIABILITY OF LOCATION DESCRIPTIONS

The obvious means of describing a location, prepositions, is by no means the only one. Like most types of writing, location descriptions use a wide variety of language, both elementary and more advanced, some of which can on occasion give rise to language errors.

This post presents some of the more sophisticated aspects of location descriptions, and also examines elementary and more advanced aspects that can cause errors. In this respect, it resembles Guinlist posts like 82. Common Errors in Making Comparisons and 118. Problems with Conditional “if”.

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NON-PREPOSITIONAL FEATURES OF LOCATION DESCRIPTIONS

1. Verbs

Some verbs describe a location alongside a preposition, while others do so without one. The most basic verb of the former kind is, of course, BE. The more colourful alternatives (able to express either an action or a state) include BE FOUND, BE PLACED, BE LOCATED, BE SITUATED, BE POSITIONED, BE ARRANGED, BE SCATTERED, COME, GO, GROW, LIE, NESTLE, PASS, REST, RUN, SIT, STAND and STRETCH.

Some states are temporary, some permanent. People and animals, for example, tend to be anywhere temporarily, while buildings and plants are typically more permanent. The underlined verbs above mostly show permanent locations; the others can show either type. Additional observations are:

BE FOUND typically accompanies the name of a broad region rather than exact location:

(a) Giraffes are found in Africa.

BE PLACED implies recent deliberate placement (see the discussion of sentence #f in 66. Types of Passive Verb Meaning).

BE POSITIONED implies location within a frame or structure, such as an actual or diagrammatic house:

(b) The bathroom is positioned directly above the kitchen.

COME accompanies a position in a sequence (see 290. Ways of Using COME, #6).

BE ARRANGED and BE SCATTERED help to show multiple locations, the former indicating purposeful positioning, the latter randomness:

(c) The tents were arranged/scattered around a kitchen area.

GO, PASS, RUN and STRETCH help show the locations of long, thin structures, such as roads. Typical prepositions after them are across, along and between.

GROW describes plant locations.

LIE (see 97. Verb Form Confusions) is useful for giving the location of something more horizontal than vertical, such as a sleeping animal or a field.

REST often helps show a location under or between something larger, such as a hill. NESTLE is a more poetic verb with a similar meaning.

STAND is, not surprisingly, the opposite of LIE, typically helping to locate taller objects and creatures.

The other kind of location verb – not requiring a preposition – is well illustrated by one of the uses of FACE (see 314. Words with Complicated Grammar 4, #1):

(d) The cinema faces (= is opposite) the hotel.

Other examples, with their implied preposition, are ADJOIN (next to), COVER (over), CROSS (across), ENCIRCLE (round), FILL (inside), FLANK (alongside), FOLLOW (alongside), INHABIT (in), NEIGHBOUR (near), OCCUPY (on), SEPARATE (between), SPAN (over + across), and TOUCH (against).

Verbs whose meaning implies a preposition are not only found in location descriptions. For some examples of other usage, see 205. Paraphrasing Prepositions with Words of Other Kinds.

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2. Participles

Some verbs whose meaning includes that of a preposition can in their -ing (participle) form exactly replace that preposition. In the following example, facing means “opposite”:

(e) The cinema facing the hotel was constructed in the 1930s.

A special feature of preposition-like participles is that they must often directly follow a noun – cinema in (e). Otherwise the corresponding preposition is necessary instead. For example, if facing the hotel followed constructed above, it would probably become opposite the hotel. The reason is that participles used like a preposition do not lose their need for a noun to describe. 

Participles replacing a preposition must also be made from a verb that needs or allows an object noun (see 8. Object-Dropping Errors). This is because prepositions normally have a partner noun that the participle must accommodate (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #1).

Other participle equivalents of location prepositions include:

across – spanning / crossing
around – surrounding / encircling
beside – flanking
between – separating / intervening
in front of – fronting
into – accessing
near – neighbouring
of – comprising
on – occupying / covering
through – dividing / separating
up – ascending / climbing
with – accompanying

One possible benefit of participles compared to prepositions is greater descriptive precision. For example, around is vague about the completeness of encirclement whereas encircling is not. For an occasional benefit of preferring a preposition, see 75. How to Avoid “Dangling” Participles, #3.

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3. Adverbs

One group of location adverbs is the familiar kind that amplify the meaning of a verb or entire sentence – words like here, everywhere, nearby, upstairs, separately and randomly, plus preposition-resembling ones like above, below, inside and outside, and preposition phrases like across the street. The next section presents a special use of all these.

In addition, there are adverbs that amplify the meaning of a preposition after them, such as well:

(f) The farm is well off the road.

Here, well indicates that the distance off the road is substantial but not huge. A smaller distance might be indicated with just, a larger one with way or far (see 256. Unusual Meanings of Familiar Words, #2).

There are surprisingly many adverbs that can precede a preposition in this way. Directly in sentence (b) above is another example. Not all such uses are location-describing, but plenty are. Other common ones are close, deep, high, immediately, much and right (see 262. Adverbs that Describe a Preposition).

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4. “There” Sentences

Without previous mention of something whose location is being named, a sentence is likely to begin with there (see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences, #7):

(g) There is a hotel located behind the tower block.

Using a before hotel here instead of the indicates previous non-mention. The next word is a participle (located without is), but could also be which (followed by is located), or just a preposition (behind).

Location phrases can also precede there (Behind the hotel there is…), usually enabling there to be omitted (see 307. Word Order Variations, #3).

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SOURCES OF ERROR

The following are notable:

5. Cultural Perspectives

The meanings of location-describing prepositions sometimes reflect a culture-specific way of seeing the world. For example, English speakers say they travel on a bus, not in one, probably because they view buses as being primarily underneath travellers (rather like horses). Many other cultures, however, think of buses as containers, and reflect that in using a preposition more like in than on. For more on transport prepositions, see 73. Prepositions for Saying How.

Differing cultural perspectives also seem to be associated with structural position nouns like top, bottom, middle, side, end and corner. English speakers view the narrower internal side of corners in this context as containers rather than specific points, so typically indicate the occupancy of one with in, not at. Outside of structures, though, the wider side of a corner is often referred to with at (exactly) or on (more vaguely).

The middle is another structural position noun that typically follows in, again suggesting that English speakers are thinking of an area rather than a point. With top, bottom, end and side, however, the typical position indicator is at. If on is used instead, the idea of attachment is also present.

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6. “Near” and “Far”

These words – also considered respectively in 254. Tricky Word Contrasts 10 (#4) and 175. Tricky Word Contrasts 6 (#3) – are easy to confuse with nearby and far away.

Near can be a verb (= “become close to a destination”, as in neared the city), preposition (were near the city), adverb (came/was near), or adjective (a near success). Nearby, on the other hand, can only be either an adverb (worked nearby) or an adjective (a nearby station; was nearby). The main problem with near and nearby is thus distinguishing their adverb and adjective uses.

As an adverb, near indicates closeness of something moving, nearby closeness of something static. Consequently, near typically accompanies movement verbs like COME, while nearby needs location ones like LIVE or STAND. This distinction also stands when near and nearby are adjectives after BE. Thus, saying a train is near suggests its approach, whereas saying it is nearby does not.

Things are different, though, with adjective usage before a noun. While nearby still implies just a non-moving position, near does not usually describe a position at all. Instead, near only makes combinations like a near success and a near miss, suggesting non-achievement, or ones like the near future, showing closeness in time rather than space. To express “coming near” before a noun, a different word – typically approaching – is necessary.

By contrast, the preposition near can imply either movement or non-movement, compensating for the inability of nearby to be a preposition. 

Far is similarly usable as either an adverb or adjective. As an adverb, it can accompany a motion verb, like GO or TRAVEL, or a position one, like BE SITUATED. However, in the latter case far needs a following word like away, off or above, or preposition phrase like to the right. Using position-describing far without suitable following wording (e.g. *The hills are far) is a fairly common error.

As an adjective, far usually means “further away” before its noun (e.g. the far side), and “distant” after it with a link verb like BE in between. The “distant” use must precede either away (or similar) or to + motion verb, e.g. …seems far to go. 

To say “distant” before a noun, faraway, far-off or distant are needed. Note the contrast between the adverb far away and the adjective faraway (see 26. One Word or Two?).

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7. Prepositions with Compass Words

Compass words like north and west may be nouns, adjectives or adverbs. As nouns (usually after the), they often follow a preposition of static location, commonly in or to (see 151. Ways of Using Compass Words). Here, to means “just outside the (compass adjective) boundary”:

(h) Sudan lies to the south (of Egypt).

Unlike in the south, this means Sudan is outside Egypt, but touching its southern border. To remove the idea of “touching Egypt” (for somewhere further south than Sudan, e.g. Uganda), it is necessary to replace to the south of with just south of (= “somewhere beyond the southern boundary of”). There would be no the because this use of south is an adverb, not a noun.

One other notable preposition is towards, meaning “almost in the (compass word) part of the same area”. In Egypt, for example, Luxor is located towards the south.

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8. Verbs after “there” + BE

As mentioned above, locations after there +VERB are often expressed with a participle or which (+ ordinary verb). Common errors are which + participle and an ordinary verb without which (see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences, # 7).

286. Repeating in Different Words

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Informative paraphrase varies in type and linguistic form

FREQUENCY AND TYPES OF DIFFERENT WORDING

Repetition – of both statements and individual words – is common in academic and professional writing. It has various uses: enabling different things to be said about the same idea, helping readers to see links between different parts of a text, giving a reminder of something said earlier, and clarifying something written just before. For a survey of all these uses in this blog, see 24. Good and Bad Repetition.

In many cases, repetition is worded differently from what it repeats. Doing this is not compulsory with the first three of the above uses, but often seems to be preferred there because of a belief that unchanged wording might be judged monotonous and hence poor writing style. An unfortunate side effect is that readers can quite easily fail to recognise the rewording as equivalent to the original (see 5. Reading Obstacles 3).

By contrast, the more informative clarifying use of repetition must logically be in different words. It is this use that I wish to focus on in the present post. Although it too features in the repetition post, the variety of linguistic expression that it can involve is not examined in detail. The grammar and vocabulary possibilities are actually quite extensive.

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KEY FEATURES OF INFORMATIVE REWORDING

Informative rewording necessitates mention of two different things: the original wording and its paraphrase. Paraphrase needs to be distinguished from identification, the type of meaning in the following (from 117. Restating Generalizations More Specifically):

(a) The first Roman Emperor was Augustus Caesar.

Although Augustus Caesar here is equivalent to the first Roman Emperor, it is not a rewording: the two expressions are not synonyms. A true paraphrase of Roman Emperor would be something like “absolute lifelong ruler of the Roman Empire” (see 80. How to Paraphrase).

The need of informative rewording to be given in two stages is not unusual in writing: other information types that have it, besides identification, include examples, consequences, similarities, names and exceptions. The two stages of informative rewording may, like those of these other meanings, be presented together in one sentence or separately in two or more.

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SINGLE-SENTENCE REWORDING

The following are the main means of saying something and rewording it in the same sentence.

1. BE (Definitions)

Definitions are one of two types of informative rewording that can be expressed with BE.  It needs to be appreciated, however, that BE statements very often contain no rewording at all. Consider this:

(a) A bicycle is a conveyance.

The meaning of a conveyance here does not exactly correspond to that of a bicycle. The reason is that it applies to many other types of transport too, so that describing a bicycle with it does not indicate what distinguishes bicycles from them. For that, more information is necessary.

The usual way to create this more precise rewording is with extra wording before and/or after a general noun like conveyance:

(b) A bicycle is a two-wheeled conveyance (which is) propelled by human energy.

This is a classic definition format, with a relative pronoun (which) introducing more detail about the general noun, without an intervening comma (see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses, #6). The words by definition should not be added after the first BE (see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #2).

However, such sentences do not always make definitions, and are not the only way to make them:

(c) Sterilization is the cleansing destruction of micro-organisms.

Here, the additional definition wording after the general noun destruction starts with a preposition (of), a common alternative to a relative pronoun (see 252. Descriptive Wording after Nouns 1, #2).

One other way to define with BE is by means of a to verb (infinitive):

(d) To sterilize (something) is to cleanse (it) of micro-organisms.

This sort of definition typically has an infinitive before BE as well as after. Again, though, such a format is not always a definition. In the following example (from 119. BE before a “to” Verb, #5), the second infinitive names a result rather than equivalence:

(e) To climb Everest is to join a very select group.

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2. BE (Naming Statements)

In naming statements, the informative rewording says not what something means but what it is called. The name may follow on from defining wording or another name. Here is an example of the former:

(f) A Christian cleric in charge of a diocese is a bishop.

The elements within a BE naming statement are similar to those in a BE definition – but in a different order. Once again, such combinations do not always create rewording, other possibilities being identifying and describing (see 206. Ways of Conveying a Name, #2). To prevent misunderstandings, it is often advisable to replace BE with a dedicated naming verb.

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3. Other Verbs

Two alternatives to BE in definitions are MEAN and BE DEFINED AS. The latter is especially useful because it not only indicates explicitly that a definition is being given, but also allows a distinction to be made between definitions newly created by the writer and those relayed from somewhere else (see 238. Using a Verb to Perform its Action). For the first of these meanings the BE part of the verb is combined with can or may, for the second it is not (see 237. Auxiliary Verbs in Professional Communication, #4).

The main alternatives to BE when defining words precede a name are BE CALLED, BE NAMED, BE KNOWN AS, BE TERMED and BE REFERRED TO AS. All except BE KNOWN AS allow the same use of may/can. When a name is being equated to another name, these verbs typically accompany also or alternatively (e.g. is also known as…).

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4. Apposition

Apposition is consecutive noun expressions each referring to the same thing (see 77. Pairing of Same-Meaning Nouns). It resembles BE in allowing an idea to be either identified or reworded, but differs in that it does so incidentally within a sentence about something else. Rewording with it may be defining, naming or renaming:

(g) Sterilization, (in other words) the cleansing destruction of micro-organisms, is vital in the laboratory.

(h) The definite article, (in other words) “the”, sometimes has a non-definite meaning.

(i) Aubergines, (in other words) egg plants, are growing in popularity.

In all of these types, it will be seen, the second noun expression has two surrounding commas. Sometimes two dashes or two brackets are used instead (see 294. Parentheses); sometimes a full stop needs to replace the second comma or dash.

The optional use of in other words after the first comma has various alternatives, of which the most exact is that is or that is to say (for the difference, see 309. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 5, #7), or their common abbreviation i.e. (see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #8).

When a name precedes a definition, as in (g), a further alternative is or. When a definition comes first, as in (h), namely becomes possible. When both nouns are names, it is possible to say also called or alternatively known as (sometimes informally abbreviated to aka).

The use of or in apposition structures can sometimes be confusing. The problem is that this equivalence-showing meaning is the opposite of the more common alternative-naming meaning of or, indicating two or more different possibilities (see 266. Indicating Alternatives). In extreme cases, misunderstanding equivalents as alternatives can lead to time being wasted on dictionary consultation in order to obtain the already-defined meaning. Thus, readers need to be especially careful when encountering or (see “Preliminary Considerations” in 177. How to Guess Meanings in a Text).

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5. Relative Clauses

When a name directly precedes its definition, in the manner of sterilization in sentence (g), one can usually add who or which + equivalence verb (BE, BE DEFINED AS, MEAN) after the separating comma, e.g. sterilization, which is… in (g).

This use of who or which is technically called “non-defining, even though it is introducing a definition! The reason for the apparent contradiction is that it is actually outside the definition (inside which another relative clause – a defining one – will often be found). The name “non-defining” is an unfortunate one, better replaced here by something like “equating” because it indicates the exact equivalence of the noun before it to the definition after (see 34. Relative Pronouns and Commas).

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MULTI-SENTENCE REWORDING

When alternative wordings are presented in separate sentences, the second sentence often indicates this with special language. One factor governing the linguistic possibilities is how much of the first sentence is being reworded.

6. Rewording a Whole Sentence

It very often happens that a second sentence rewords all of the first:

(j) Excessive intake of alcoholic beverages has a deleterious physical effect. In other words, it is unhealthy to drink too much.

Here, the aim of the rewording is not to define or name any particular concept but to help the reader to understand a complicated or technical statement. 

In other words in this use is a connector – an adverb-like expression that shows a meaning link between adjacent sentences (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors). Its use in a new sentence is grammatically different from that in sentences like (g)-(i), where the rewording is not a verb-based statement. These alternative uses of in other words make it grammatically similar to for example (see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #4). That is to say has them too.

Another rewording indicator is to put it another way. This could be classified, like the others, as a multi-word connector, or it could be thought of as just an infinitive phrase with a commenting capability (see the end of 183. Statements between Commas).

One other alternative to a connector is what I call a “connector synonym” – usually a non-adverbial way of expressing a connector meaning (see 112. Synonyms of Connectors). The most basic in sentences like (j) is probably a starting This + equivalence verb: This means…, This is tantamount to saying…, This equates to saying… etc.

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7. Rewording Part of a Sentence

This kind of new-sentence rewording normally requires repetition of the original word(s):

(k) Only a bishop can grant permission.  A bishop is (defined as) a Christian cleric in charge of a diocese.

To use MEAN instead of BE (DEFINED AS) in such combinations, it is necessary to begin the second sentence The word(s) (repeated wording) mean(s)….

When the second sentence is naming rather than defining, a common formula is The name given to such (key wording from the definition) is… . When it is presenting an alternative name, one might say Another name for (earlier name) is….

282. Features of History Writing

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Some of the language of history writing needs careful handling

ROLE AND NATURE OF HISTORY WRITING

It is not just historians who write about history. Every academic subject and every business decision is based on a history that sometimes needs to be told for such reasons as assisting understanding or winning over sceptics.

Most of the language of history writing is also common in at least some other types of writing. For example, one of the most obvious linguistic features, past tense verbs, occurs widely in written fiction, jokes, journalism and academic literature surveys (see 76. Tenses of Citation Verbs). Sequence connectors like afterwards, next, then and eventually are also common in descriptions of future sequences and of timeless ones like instructions and processes (see 210. Process Descriptions).

Nevertheless, there are items of grammar and vocabulary that seem to be more associated with history writing than any other type. In this post I wish to identify some of these, and also to highlight some of the less history-specific items that I think can prove troublesome in history writing.

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VERB USE

1. Past Perfect Tense

This tense (with had) is no more specific to history writing than the past simple is, but I mention it here because its function is often incorrectly believed to be just to indicate a very distant past time. Its primary role is actually to indicate an earlier past time than the one that a description is focussed on (see 171. Aspects of the Past Perfect Tense).

One other notable use of this tense in history writing is with event verbs accompanying already. These need the past perfect tense instead of the past simple as a reflection of their need in present-time descriptions (outside American English) for the present perfect has/have tense.

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2. Future in the Past

This kind of future resembles the past perfect in indicating an event or situation outside the focus period – but later rather than earlier. Two major types are destinies and arrangements. A destiny is someone’s definite future, arranged or not; an arrangement is someone’s planned future, and may not actually have occurred.

Both of these types are expressed with a base-form verb after either would or was/were to (see 119. BE before a “to” Verb, #4 and #8). The correct interpretation is usually indicated by the surrounding text. Without this, the meaning can be unclear:

(a) Octavian was to become the Emperor Augustus.

One way of unambiguously indicating a destiny is by adding about between was/were and to, though this only indicates imminent destinies, and with a later when it can imply non-fulfilment (see 269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #6). Negative destinies are also shown with never to after either BE or a possible complete about to sentence (see 269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #2).

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3. “to” and “when” + Subsequent Event

Like other types of multi-event description, the historical kind has numerous ways of introducing a new event without overusing and. Here is how to and when can achieve this:

(b) The police arrived at the scene to find a shocking sight.

(c) The ship was running out of supplies, when land was spotted.

There are restrictions on both of these uses. For details see 246. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 2, #5 and 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #4.

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4. “Seems / Appears to Have”

Because the past is not always fully documented, histories are often forced to describe it with uncertainty language. Very useful in this respect are the verbs SEEM and APPEAR. Past-time verbs typically follow them in the have infinitive form, e.g. …seems to have failed (see the discussion of sentence #f in 96. Making Statements More Uncertain 2). An alternative is may have.

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CONNECTORS

Connectors are adverb-like expressions that show how the meaning of their sentence is related to that of one normally occurring before (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors). Connectors in historical writing resemble those in process descriptions, but are not completely the same.

5. Sequence Connectors

Sequence connectors indicate the timing of an event or situation relative to one mentioned in the sentence(s) before. They can mark the timing of their own event as earlier, simultaneous or later. This blog has fairly comprehensive lists of sequence connectors in 227. Time Adverbs and 259. Multi-Word Connectors.

Two observations in the latter post are the frequency with which this appears in multi-word connectors, and its ability to be replaced by that. The usual reason for preferring that is to highlight distance (see 234. Adjective and Pronoun Uses of “that”). History writers are often motivated to use that because they see past events as distant in time. Common sequence connectors containing it include after that, at that point, at that time, before that and following that. One expression where that is perhaps less likely is during this time.

There is also a fairly typical historical sequence connector – with that – that has no this alternative. It indicates abruptness of a final event in a sequence:

(d) Caesar announced the new procedures. With that, he turned and strode out.

Another connector with a similar use is Thereupon.

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6. Result Connectors

Connectors of this kind mark the event or situation in their sentence as not just later than one mentioned in the sentence(s) before, but also caused by it. Their frequency in history writing is not surprising given the interest of historians in causal connections.

Common result connecters in history writing include as a result, at that, consequently, in consequence, in turn and thus (see 32. Expressing Consequences). Resultant events and situations seem less likely to be signalled with hence, therefore or that is why, as these are more indicative of logical conclusions (see 20. Problem Connectors, #4 and #5).

In turn introduces a logical consequence:

(e) Women gained greater financial independence. This in turn increased the importance of companionship within marriage.

For an explanation of at that, see 234. Adjective and Pronoun Uses of “that”, #1.

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FURTHER ADVERB USES

7. “Once”

This multi-use word is sometimes a conjunction like when and sometimes an adverb with various meanings. One familiar adverb meaning emphasises non-repetition, contrasting with twice, three times etc. Alternatively, adverbial once may just mean in the past, without confirming repetition, or one time or on one occasion, definitely indicating repetition. To guard against misunderstanding, the alternative expressions may sometimes be advisable. This meaning variability of once reflects that of one (see 263. Uses of “One” and “Ones”, #3).

The word occasion sometimes replaces other numerical frequency words (twice, three times etc.), even though they are not ambiguous in the same way. The typical use is after on and a number word, e.g. on two occasions (see 236. Tricky Word Contrasts 9, #3).

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8. “Then”

This word can indicate not just a later occurrence but also a concurrent one. To do so, its partner verb must usually express either a situation or an extended occurrence (see 225. Simultaneous Occurrence, #3). In these circumstances, then is less likely to start its sentence:

(f) Faraday obsessively studied electromagnetism. He was then (= at that time) employed at the Royal Institution.

Quite often in history writing, then with this meaning goes between two noun expressions, the second of which is a description of the first see 77. Apposition (Pairing of Same-Meaning Nouns), #1). For example, (f) could begin Faraday, then an employee… .

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9. Relative Past Times

Time expressions relating to the present, such as last year or in three days’ time, are of course not usable in descriptions of the past. Here are some key correspondences:

yesterday = the day before, the previous day
today = that day
tomorrow = the day after, the following day
this Monday/ week etc. = that… etc.
last Monday/ week etc. = the previous…, the…before
next Monday/ week etc. = the next/ the following…, the…after
The coming Monday etc. = the following…
in …s’ time = …later (see 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #1).
…ago = …previously
since… = from… (see 258. Saying How Long Something Lasts, #2)

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10. “Ever”

Ever after a superlative adjective or adverb means “compared to all other times” (see 272. Uses of “Ever”, #3):

(g) Airlines this year report the most flights ever.

Care is needed with past tense verbs (Airlines reported…) because ever would include times after their action as well as before. To make a comparison only with preceding times, past tense verbs need something like so far, up to that point or in living memory.

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11. Judgement Adverbs

Historians like to comment on behaviour they are reporting, often because they have insight from knowing what happened afterwards. One useful tool is a starting “judgement” adverb, especially the “subject-focussed” kind (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs, #3):

(h) Cunningly, Caesar held his soldiers back.

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12. “If only…”

This typical indicator of personal wishes is sometimes used by historians to express a widely-shared regret about something in the past (see 251. The Grammar of “Only”, #1).

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OTHER OPTIONS

13. Indirect Speech

Speech by characters in a historical text is probably less able than that in fictional narrative and even journalism to have direct form. This is partly because historians are not as free as fiction writers to invent “actual” words, and are less likely than journalists to have heard and remembered the speech they report.

Even when historians do know the actual wording that they are reporting, they still need to consider the general convention within expository writing of not using direct speech unless there is something striking about it (see 127. When to Use Indirect Speech). Direct speech that does appear in historical writing will often have been copied from a historical source.

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14. Statement-Referring “which”

This kind of which is another useful means of avoiding and:

(i) Octavian defeated his enemies in battle, which enabled him to become Roman Emperor.

Which here refers to what Octavian did, not battle. For a full analysis, see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses, #2.

Like relative pronouns in general, which in this use often follows a preposition instead of being the subject or object of the subsequent verb (enabled above). In historical writing, typical combinations include after which, as a result of which, at which, before which, despite which and upon which. An alternative to the last is whereupon.

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15. Dates

Historical dates can be tricky:

–  British English usually names the date of a single day differently in speech and writing. Speech typically includes the…of… (the 15^th of March), while writing typically excludes it (15^th March). American English reverses the order (March 15^th), sometimes with the in between. For more, see 67. Numbers in Spoken English.

– Decade names often have the first year inside the…s (e.g. the 1990s). It is important to include the (see 165. Confusions of Similar Structures 2, #1).

– In recent years, some historians have abandoned the abbreviations BC and AD when distinguishing years before and after the time of Christ, replacing them with BCE and CE (see 130. Formal Abbreviations, final section).

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16. Historical Division Nouns

Historians commonly create past time divisions through names like Roman times and The Medieval Period. The nouns – typically countable – include age(s), epoch, era, period and time(s) (see the end of 196. Saying What is inside Things).

277. Advantages and Disadvantages

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Descriptions of advantages & disadvantages have recognisable linguistic features, though most are optional

LINGUISTIC FEATURES

Saying what is good and/or bad about something is not difficult in English. However, doing it in a sophisticated and varied way can be a greater challenge, for the obvious reason that that needs a wider, more “advanced” knowledge of the language. It is this need that is the focus here. The aims are to present at least some linguistic possibilities that readers might find new, and to reduce the likelihood of grammar and vocabulary errors associated with this kind of writing.

Descriptions of advantages and disadvantages may be brief, accomplished in as little as a single sentence, or spread out over multiple sentences. It is the latter kind that is the focus here. For some advice on the briefer kind, see 51. Making Concessions with “May”,  168. Ways of Arguing 2 and 159. Exotic Grammar Structures 2, #2.

One question raised by multi-sentence description of advantages and disadvantages – deciding when to mention each particular one – is considered elsewhere in this blog in 222. Information Orders in Texts, #8. Two needs of a more linguistic nature are firstly to find different ways of saying the same kind of thing so as not to sound monotonous, and secondly to use expressions clarifying links between the different points made.

These two needs are the main concern here. Relevant language is first illustrated in a model paragraph and then analysed more closely, in the same way as in other Guinlist posts about multi-sentence information (cf. 115. Surveying Numerical Data and 210. Process Descriptions).

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MODEL PARAGRAPH

Advantages and disadvantages are typically considered in order to assist a choice (see 94. Essay Instruction Words). The choice may be between adopting and not adopting one particular thing, or between various competing alternatives such as test procedures or consumer products.

In the former case it is possible just to describe the advantages and disadvantages of the candidate for adoption, without mentioning the alternative of continuing without it. The latter case, however, necessitates mentioning each candidate’s advantages and disadvantages. It is consequently more complicated, but perhaps more typical. As a result, it is the kind of description illustrated below.

This description considers advantages and disadvantages of different transport types. It is incomplete in that no choice is actually made between the options – in a real situation that might be in the next paragraph (introduced by on balance or overall), along with a justification. The numbers in the description are to assist sentence referencing in the subsequent discussion.

Travelling in Cities

(1) There are six main ways of travelling in cities. (2) The simplest is on foot. (3) This is beneficial in numerous respects, such as its very low cost, provision of exercise, lack of stress, opportunities for reflexion, and very reliable journey time. (4) The main problem with walking, of course, is the time and energy that it takes, although if traffic is heavy the time will not be very much greater than that taken by supposedly faster transport modes. (5) The second way of travelling is by bicycle. (6) This has similar advantages to walking, and is of course quicker; but a major drawback is the serious danger of being hit by a motor vehicle and suffering personal injury or damage to the bicycle, and there is also a risk of unexpected delay due to a puncture. (7) Thirdly one can travel by motor cycle or private car. (8) Provided the traffic is not too dense, this is likely to be the quickest way of travelling.  (9) It is problematic, though, in that fuel and maintenance are relatively expensive, journey times (which depend on traffic) are unreliable, concentration is necessary while driving, and there is a need to park at both ends of the journey. (10) Fourthly, there is the possibility of travelling by private hire taxi. (11) The benefits are similar to those of journeying by private car. Moreover, parking is not a problem, and the stress of driving can be left to somebody else. (12) However, this form of travel has the major disadvantage of being probably the costliest of all, and it can sometimes be difficult to find. (13) The fifth possibility is by bus or shared taxi. (14) This is slower than other forms of motorised road transport, but it is cheaper, it may be quicker than bicycle travel (provided the number and length of stops are limited), and it again allows attention to be given to other things than driving. (15) Finally, there are railways. These are a relatively cheap and environmentally friendly form of motorised transport, and they stand out for speed and lack of congestion. (16) On the other hand, they are rarely “door-to-door”, necessitating further journeys to and from stations, and trains are notorious for unreliability and cancellations.

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ANALYSIS OF THE PARAGRAPH

The organization of the paragraph is fairly typical. Each option is considered in turn and in full, with its advantages listed together before its disadvantages – not alternating with them. The following linguistic features are notable:

1. List Language

The amount of information about each transport option means that the list of six occupies multiple sentences rather than just one. There is a consequent need for the kind of listing language that this blog considers in depth in 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists. Notable features are the typical introductory There are… sentence (with a following full stop, not colon), a superlative adjective (the simplest) introducing the first option, and number words (the second, thirdly etc.) before the others.

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2. Comparison Language

To compare is to note similarities and differences. Differences in particular are implicit in the idea of advantages and disadvantages, and hence likely in their descriptions. One common means of naming differences is comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs, or their equivalents. Examples in the paragraph are simplest (sentence 2), greater and faster (S4), quicker (S6), quickest (S8), relatively expensive (S9), the costliest (S12), slower, cheaper and quicker (S14), and relatively cheap and … friendly (S15).

Although similarities are less likely to be indicated in a description of advantages and disadvantages, they do still sometimes appear, particularly when multiple options are being considered, as above. Examples are in S6 (similar advantages), S11 (are similar) and S14 (again allows). All of these make a comparison with a previously-mentioned option rather than a later one – probably a normal requirement.

Common similarity and difference indicators that are not illustrated above are the preposition like (like X, Y… or Y is like X) and its opposite unlike. For details of these and other similarity and difference expressions, see 149. Saying How Things are Similar and 216. Indicating Differences.

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3. Continuation and Switch Expressions

Each advantage description above is followed by either a new advantage (= continuation) or a disadvantage (= switch). There are no switches from disadvantages to advantages, but this does happen sometimes elsewhere.

Continuation language may be a list comma, signalling that the next (dis)advantage is not the last (cf. cost in S3 and maintenance in S9); or a conjunction (usually and or plus – see 236. Tricky Word Contrasts 9, #7); or and + connector (e.g. and…also in S6); or a separate-sentence link expression – either a connector like moreover in S11 or a connector synonym like another (+ noun meaning “[dis]advantage”) (see 112. Synonyms of Connectors). Other possible continuation connectors are furthermore, additionally, in addition and lastly.

Switch expressions similarly may or may not need a new sentence. The usual one that does not is but (S6 and S14). In new sentences, common connectors are synonyms of but, particularly however (S12), on the other hand (S16), though (S9), yet and on the plus/negative side (see 259. Multi-Word Connectors). A frequent alternative to a switch connector is to start the switch sentence with (dis)advantage(s) or similar, often combined with main or major (cf. S4 and S6).

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4. Nouns Meaning “(Dis)Advantages”

Synonyms of advantages include attractions, benefits (S11), merits, pluses, positive features and strengths, plus the less formal pros, points for and points in favour. Note also not a problem in S11. Benefits often follows the verb BRING (see 273. Verb-Object Collocations). Points is sometimes replaced by arguments (normally a word meaning both an opinion and supporting points: see 167. Ways of Arguing 1). Quite often, points for and arguments for have no following noun.

Synonyms of disadvantages include difficulties, downsides, drawbacks (S6), issues, minuses, negative features, problems, shortcomings, snags and weaknesses, plus the less formal cons and arguments/ points against.

All these nouns can precede detail of either the (dis)advantage or its possessor. The former typically needs of + noun / -ing verb (e.g. the disadvantage of cost: see S12 and 160. Uses of “of”, #4), or a that statement (see the end of 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”). The latter also often involves of (e.g. the disadvantage of walking), though difficulty, issue, problem and snag prefer with (see S4 and 134. Words with a Variable Preposition, #2), while (dis)advantage, benefit and value have in when following there are (see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences, #6).

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5. Adjectives

Most of the advantage adjectives above are the comparative and superlative forms listed in #2 above. I found that other adjectives – related to the positive nouns in #4 – were surprisingly difficult to include, only managing beneficial in S3. Alternatives include attractive, desirable and outstanding. The associated advantage can be named after all of these with in + noun / -ing or in that…, like after comparative adjectives, e.g. beneficial in numerous respects in S3 (see 82. Common Errors in Making Comparisons, #7).

One further advantage adjective is redeeming. It must come after naming of disadvantages because it means not just “beneficial”, but also “compensating (slightly) for the disadvantages” – a metaphorical extension of the religious idea of salvation from suffering (see 137. Words that Reflect English Culture, #5). Its partner noun is usually characteristic, feature or quality, e.g. one redeeming feature is….

Two other positive adjectives, advantageous and preferable, seem more likely to appear after all of the alternatives have been considered, when a particular choice is being recommended.

On the other hand, the negative adjective disadvantageous seems more usable in the main analysis, as are disappointing, poor, problematic, undesirable and weak. After these, the disadvantage is again sometimes stated with in or in that (cf. problematic in S9).

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6. Verbs

The most basic verb for expressing the idea of “(dis)advantage” is HAVE, often followed by the (dis)advantage of/that…, as in S12. Synonyms of HAVE, such as CONTAIN, are unlikely (see 170. Logical Errors in Written English, example #d).

Most other verbs have no object noun. COMPARE, PERFORM and SCORE can combine with well, poorly or (un)favourably (plus on… to show the [dis]advantage). Other advantage verbs include EXCEL (IN), MEET EXPECTATIONS, STAND OUT (FOR) (S15) and SUCCEED (IN). Other disadvantage verbs include COME UP SHORT (ON), DISAPPOINT, FAIL and FALL DOWN (ON).

Also useful, especially when making a final overall judgement, is OUTWEIGH (= “be more valuable than”). The usual format is X outweighs Y, X being a particular advantage, Y a disadvantage (see 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #8).

274. Questions with a Hidden Meaning

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English has numerous formulaic questions, especially spoken, that do more than just ask for an answer

TYPES AND IMPORTANCE

Questions are very easy to misunderstand. One problem is identifying their purpose: instead of seeking information, they might be “rhetorical” – not expecting anyone to answer them – or used for social purposes like greeting or requesting. Another problem is that some questions express meanings that cannot be clearly linked to any of their words, rather as many “phrasal” verbs do (see 139. Phrasal Verbs).

Most questions with a hidden meaning are formulaic and of the direct rather than indirect kind. These features reflect the fact that they are more typical of spoken English than written (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing). Some can be converted into the indirect type, and do appear in formal writing in that guise, but many either lose their hidden meaning if converted or become incomprehensible.

Despite these characteristics, I think questions with a hidden meaning are worthy of a post in this writing-focussed blog. One reason is that the questions are very possible in the typical speech of professional contexts (in seminars, for example, or meetings, or presentations). Another is that the topic is not often given very extensive coverage despite the size of the contribution it can make to mastering idiomatic English usage.

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NON-RHETORICAL QUESTIONS

The following are interesting examples of idiomatic questions to which an answer is typically expected:

What about (noun)?
What if…?
How about…?
Why not…?
Is that all?
Are you being served?
How come?
… on earth…?

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1. What about…?

This has at least two non-rhetorical uses (as well as rhetorical ones: see below). One is to request information, but only in very particular circumstances, so that there is a great potential for misuse. There must be immediately-preceding conversation on a different topic within the same category, like this:

(a) So Venus is far too hostile a planet for human habitation. What about Mars?

Asking about Mars here continues a conversation about planets, but opens a new sub-topic. This kind of question can be reported with the verb ASK ABOUT.

An inappropriate use of information-seeking what about would be at the very start of a conversation, or directly after discussion of a completely different topic, such as types of coffee. For an alternative in such situations, see 195. Tricky Word Contrasts 7, #5.

A second non-rhetorical use of what about…? is to make a suggestion. If the next word is a verb, it needs the -ing (gerund) form:

(b) – What about meeting at 12.00?

– Yes, OK.

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2. What if…?

This is another type with both non-rhetorical and rhetorical meanings. One non-rhetorical use is a further way of making a suggestion:

(c) What if the meeting was at 12.00?

The verb was here is in the “unreal” past simple tense – typical after this use of what if…? because, of course, suggestions are not always acted on. Other “unreal” verb uses in this blog are after if (see 118. Problems with Conditional “if”, #6), after as if (see 191. Exotic Grammar Structures 3, #3), and after wish that… (see 254. Tricky Word Contrasts 10, #6).

In another non-rhetorical use, what if…? means “What would happen if…?”. The next words need to name a hypothetical future event. A present simple verb would indicate a likely possibility, a past simple verb an unlikely one. 

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3. How about…? and Why not…?

These are alternatives to what about…? and what if…? as ways of making a suggestion. Any verb after the latter must be in the base (infinitive) form without to (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, #5).

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4. Is that all?

This is a not very polite way of saying “This is not enough”, or a polite way of saying “Is the delivery complete?” Note the preference for that over this (see 234. Adjective and Pronoun Uses of “that”).

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5. Are you being served?

This calls for a yes or no answer, as might be expected. The hidden aspect is a promise to arrange service if the answer is no.

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6. How come?

This requests a reason for a sudden new situation. It is perhaps an abbreviation of How has this come about?:

(d) – The exams have been cancelled.

– How come?

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7. …on earth…

This is not so much a question as an addition that can be made to questions starting with a question word (usually straight after that question word). There are two possible meanings. In the following, the speaker is implied to be struggling to think of any possible answer to the question (though believes one exists):

(e) What on earth did you say?

The other possible meaning is a suggestion of the speaker’s irritation or surprise. It is likely to be present if the answer to the question is not the speaker’s main concern. It would exist in (e) if did you say was changed to are you saying, making the question about something obvious to the speaker. The following might be addressed to someone returning from somewhere in a bad condition or after a long delay. It expresses the speaker’s disapproval rather than curiosity:

(f) Where on earth have you been?

An alternative to on earth in both (e) and (f) is ever. Most question words tend to form a single word with it (whatever, wherever etc.), exceptions being whose and why (see 272. Uses of “Ever”, #2).

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RHETORICAL QUESTIONS

Under this heading, topic-Introducing questions are of interest, along with:

What about…?
What if…?
Why not(?)
Who knows (…)?
Who cares (…)?
Who says (so)?
Who(ever) would have thought it?
Whatever next?
(Do you) see what I mean?
What can you do?
What can I say?
What do you expect?
How about that?

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8. Topic Introducing

This type of question qualifies as rhetorical because no response is expected from the addressee, but it is unusual in that the person asking it usually gives an immediate answer themself (see 297. Types of Response to a Question, #5). I call it “topic-introducing” because it resembles a heading introducing a fairly extensive piece of information.

In oral presentations, such questions are likely to be direct ones and linked to their answer by well (see 186. Language in Oral Presentations, #2):

(f) What are the main requirements for successful language acquisition? Well, …

In formal writing, by contrast, the question is likely to be indirect and immediately answered without well (see 57. Indirect Questions in Formal Writing).

Topic-introducing questions can start with What about…? instead of a standard question word, provided a related topic has just been considered (see #1 above).

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9. What about…?

A further rhetorical use of this expression is to remind. Although it has no obvious answer, it usually needs a response, a common one being Thanks for reminding me.

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10. What if…?

When this is not suggesting (see above), it typically names a hypothetical future that casts doubt on something under consideration:

(g) Today the water supply is reliable, but what if the climate changes?

Here, the doubt is about water reliability. The verb after if could be changes, changed or were to change, depending on degree of likelihood (see 119. BE before a “to” Verb, #7). This kind of direct what if…? question is possible in writing as well as in speech, but writing also uses a more formal indirect form, typically with ASK/WONDER + what will/would happen if… (without a question mark).

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11. Why not(?)

By itself, this is usable in conversation as a rhetorical response to another person’s hypothesis or proposal:

(h) – We could meet at 12.00.

       – Why not?

If the hypothesis or proposal is positive like this, why not? shows agreement. After a negative one, by contrast, it shows disagreement. This would be the case, for example, with could in (h) replaced by shouldn’t.

In formal writing, why not is usable as an indirect question. It typically follows a report of the hypothesis or proposal that it is commenting on, and it needs to accompany an “asking” word in a sentence with no question mark at the end. It may express the writer’s own belief or report that of others. In the first case, it seems more likely to show disagreement than agreement:

(i) Jones thinks space tourism will never be popular. One might wonder why not.

As a report of other people’s thoughts, why not seems as able to express agreement as disagreement. For example, with never in (i) replaced by soon, agreement can be reported with a second sentence like Many say why not.

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12. Who knows (…)?

Questions of this kind are found in both spoken and written contexts. What they express is uncertainty:

(j) – Will cancer ever be curable?

      – Who knows? (= nobody knows)

In speech, who knows? alone is common. In writing, a longer sentence is more typical, though still in direct question form – there is no indirect equivalent. Added words are usually an object of knows, typically in the form of an indirect question, e.g. …whether cancer will ever be curable? The question mark is necessitated by the direct who question, not the indirect whether one.

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13. Who cares (…)?

This is a slightly impolite way of saying “I am not interested in this”. It is usable in the same ways as Who knows (…)? except that in writing it can be extended by not just an indirect question but also about…?.

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14. Who says (so)?

This is an informal, slightly impolite way of responding sceptically to someone else’s spoken assertion.

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15. Who(ever) would have thought it?

This expresses surprise at an event or idea represented by it.

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16. Whatever next?

This spoken expression is a response to a sight or report of an event that the speaker considers outrageous. It makes that belief clear. For more -ever questions with hidden meaning, see 272. Uses of “Ever”, #2).

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17. (Do you) see what I mean?

Another spoken expression, this can mark an occurrence or sight as an illustration or proof of something recently pointed out. A reminder of the earlier point can be added in a following about… phrase

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18. What can you do?

The hidden meaning that this spoken expression can have is “nothing can stop this”. You means “people” (see 211. General Words for People):

(k) Crime is increasing, but what can you do?

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19. What can I say?

This indicates something that is hard to put into words. Often it refers to something outstandingly good or bad. For example, a football manager might use it when asked to comment on a brilliant performance by their team.

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20. What do you expect?

Here, you may refer to an addressee or to people in general. The meaning is that a reported or observed behaviour – often but not always undesirable – is so typical as to be inevitable. An example of such a behaviour might be traffic breaking traffic laws when no police are present.

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21. How about that?

This invites observers to appreciate a clever or successful performance by either the speaker or someone that they are watching. For example, a tennis commentator might use it as a comment on a well-executed difficult stroke.

272. Uses of “Ever”

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“Ever” contributes to words and characteristic word combinations, with variable meanings

THE VALUE OF CONSIDERING “EVER”

Ever is like only: most often used like an ordinary English adverb, but with enough less well-known possibilities to make it what I call “multi-use” (see 3. Multi-Use Words). As with my post on only (251. The Grammar of “Only”), the purpose of concentrating on ever here is to offer both a comprehensive description of its usage and some reminders of various grammar points made elsewhere in this blog.

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USES

1. As an Ordinary Time Adverb

Ever is used with adjectives and sometimes verbs to mean “without ending”. With adjectives, this meaning is a type of duration (saying how long). Like most adjective-focussed adverbs, ever typically goes first. The combinations can usually occupy either of the main adjective positions: before a noun (e.g. an ever fruitful enterprise) and after one with a link verb in between (…was ever grateful/ready). Some combinations are so common that they have ceased to be separate words. Ever-present usually has a hyphen; evergreen lacks even that.

Before comparative adjectives (ever better, ever more dangerous), ever perhaps expresses unending frequency (saying how often) rather than duration.

With verbs, ever mostly expresses unending frequency. When it does, the verb must represent a brief action rather than an extended one or a state (see 225. Simultaneous Occurrence), and be in either a “continuous” tense (BE -ing) or the participle form (especially -ing). Common verbs include ASK, COMPLAIN, DEMAND, SAY, SEEK, SUGGEST, THINK (= believe), TRY and WISH. A typical sentence might be:

(a) Small children are ever trying to be noticed.

The position here of ever, just before the -ing part of the verb, is the only possible one.

Participles with ever follow it, separated by a hyphen, e.g. ever-increasing prices, ever-criticised behaviour (see 223. Uses of Hyphens, #4D). In the word everlasting, the absence of a hyphen perhaps reflects combination with an adjective rather than participle (see 245. Adjectives with a Participle Ending).

With both adjectives and verbs, frequency-indicating ever is replaceable by a frequency-indicating always (see 227. Time Adverbs). With verbs, ever perhaps sounds slightly less positive than always, suggesting the repetitions are causing irritation.

The other main use of ever with verbs usually requires them to be negative and/or in a question, and allows tenses other than continuous ones, e.g.did not ever go…, will they ever see…?  Ever then means “at any time” (see 310. Aspects of Negation, #7), and not ever is very similar to never, though much less common outside questions.

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2. In Questions Asked with a Question Word

Ever can go directly after any question word except whether, whom and whose, forming (except after why) a single word with it (see 285. Complexities of Question Words, #4). It can also follow any question word more distantly, before the main part of the verb. Both uses suggest its user cannot imagine any possible answer to the question:

(b) Whatever did the money buy?

(c) What did the money ever buy?

The difference here is that (b) is a genuine information-seeking question, while (c) is just an expression of scepticism implying the answer nothing .

The tenses in the following examples make the question about something happening either as it is asked or so recently that evidence of it is still visible. As with (b), information is being sought:

(d) Whatever are you doing?

(e) Wherever have they been?

In addition, though, ever suggests surprise or irritation. Moreover, the visibility of the event means ever cannot logically be in the later, existence-questioning position.

An alternative to ever directly after a question word is on earth (see 274. Questions with a Hidden Meaning, #7). It similarly suggests that the speaker is mystified, surprised or irritated, but perhaps more emphatically.

Ever questions like (c), (d) and (e) can be indirect, with ever in the same positions. However, indirect forms of questions like (b) seem likely not to include ever at all.

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3. After Comparatives and Superlatives

The comparative and superlative forms of both adjectives and adverbs can be expanded into a phrase by means of a following ever statement, with ever meaning “at any time”. After comparatives, the statement is introduced by than, after superlatives that. The verb in the statement rarely has a negative or question form:

(f) The moon astronauts travelled further from the earth than humans had ever done before.

(g) The moon is the furthest (point) that humans have ever reached beyond the earth.

In (f), further is a comparative adverb linked by than to the following ever statement; in (g), furthest is a superlative adjective (describing the visible or implied noun point) linked by that to the following ever statement.

In addition to adjectives and adverbs in the superlative form, there are a few base-form ones with a superlative-like meaning – first and last for example – that can similarly have a subsequent that…ever statement. Moreover, base-form adjectives and adverbs between as…as… (e.g. as far as…) can also precede an ever statement, the second as acting like than/that after comparatives and superlatives.

Abbreviated forms of than, that and as statements like the above are often possible. In one, there is just ever by itself after either a comparative + than (e.g. better than ever), or a superlative without that (e.g. the furthest ever), or a base adjective between as…as (e.g. as far as ever). The use directly after a superlative is replaceable by other “intensifying” words, such as yet, so far and imaginable (see 269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #3). Another type of abbreviation after a superlative is ever + passive (-ed) participle: …the furthest (point) ever reached in (g).

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4. After Conditional “if”

This is another context where ever meaning “at any time” can accompany a verb that is neither negative nor in a question. It is usable in the same two sentence positions that are possible after question words:

(h) If … aliens were … encountered, the excitement would be huge.

(i) If … a comet was … seen, a disaster was expected.

Sentence (h) is a standard use of if, with the event mentioned after it implied to be unlikely. In (i), on the other hand, certain occurrence is conveyed, rather as it is with when, but with a suggestion of greater rarity (see 118. Problems with Conditional “if”, #6).

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5. With Certain Adverbs and Adverb Phrases

Ever can precede after, more or since in their independent adverb role. Ever after means “always after then” (typically with a verb in a past or future tense). Ever more means either “always after then” (with a past tense verb and for in front) or “always after now” (with a future tense verb). Ever since means “always between then and now” (with a verb in the present perfect tense). Ever is not replaceable in any of these with always:

(j) Gold was found there once and has been sought ever since.

Note that after and since without ever can imply either “always” or “once”, so that adding ever is a way of ensuring that the “always” meaning is understood.

After and since can additionally be prepositions or conjunctions after ever, necessitating further words after them. For example, since in (j) would become a preposition before a noun expression like that time, and a conjunction before a subject + verb, e.g. that occurred (see 61. “Since” versus “Because”).

One other adverb commonly found after ever is so combined with either an adjective (ever so easy) or adverb (ever so easily). This is so meaning “very”, and ever just makes that meaning even stronger (like very, very…). It is a rather informal use: in formal contexts both words would probably be replaced by extremely or similar (see 194. Adverbs that Say How Much, #5).

Also notable is only ever, which means “always with no alternative” (see 251. The Grammar of “Only”).

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6. As a Suffix (“-ever”)

As mentioned above, ever is often fused onto the end of a word that by itself introduces a question (whoever, whenever, however etc.).

Words formed like this have both the questioning uses described above (#2) and a non-questioning one. In the latter, the verb after the -ever word cannot be the only one in its sentence in the way did…buy is in (b) (a “direct” question). Instead, it typically belongs to adverb-like combinations in longer sentences:

(k) HOWEVER the question IS POSED, the answer is always the same.

(l) WHATEVER anyone ADVISES, problems can be overcome.

The -ever parts here are adverbial because they are neither the subject of the main verb nor the complement or object. The main verb in (k) (is) has the subject the answer and the complement the same; the main verb in (l) (can be overcome) has the subject problems and allows no object. 

For more about however in sentences like (k), see 256. Unusual Meanings of Familiar Words, #6. For information about dropping BE after whatever in sentences like (l), see the end of 192. When BE can be Omitted).

Of course, -ever words in indirect questions similarly need more than one verb in their sentence. However, they still differ from most non-questioning -ever words in introducing noun-like instead of adverb-like sentence parts (see 185. Noun Synonyms of Question Words).

Nevertheless, there are also a few non-questioning -ever uses – involving whoever, whatever or whichever – that introduce a noun-like sentence part:

(m) Whatever was written is lost.

The underlined part here is the subject of is lost. What still rules out such cases as indirect questions is absence of a question-indicating expression like ask, explain or know (see 219. Wording next to Indirect Questions).

Non-questioning -ever has three alternative meanings. The most common is “unimportance”: that the -ever part is naming something that does not affect what is mentioned in the main part of the sentence (see 199. Importance and Unimportance, #8). For example, sentence (k) says the wording of the question does not affect the answer. This meaning allows -so- to be inserted into the -ever word (e.g. whatsoever, howsoever) to give more emphasis.

The other two meanings seem more likely when the -ever part has a noun rather than adverbial role, as in sentence (m). One of these meanings is “all” or “everything” – the start of (m) could mean “everything written”. The other possible meaning is “unknown”: (m) could be indicating ignorance of what exact single thing was written.

One other use of whatever is directly after a negative (pro)noun to emphasize the negation, rather like at all, e.g. nothing whatever, no reason whatever.

263. Uses of “One” and “Ones”

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“One” has three basic meanings and is usable like a noun or adjective in various formal writing roles

FUNDAMENTAL FEATURES

Although description of one and ones is common in elementary grammar books, plenty of aspects are usually left to be covered at a more advanced level. However, I feel that even there some advanced aspects tend not to be included. This post looks in detail at one and ones, adding my own insights to the widely-recognised ones and paying, as ever, particular attention to formal writing. Some of the points also arise elsewhere in this blog, but for the sake of completeness are included here in a briefer form.

Grammatically, one may be a “determiner” (similar to, but not the same as, an adjective: see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”), or a pronoun. As a determiner, it always has a directly-following singular countable noun (e.g. one reason), so cannot be plural.

The pronoun one sometimes means “people in general”, but mostly takes its meaning from a plural noun mentioned in the surrounding words or understandable from the place of utterance. It may be alone (one is…) or have descriptive wording before and/or after (a red one, one on top).

When the pronoun use of one directly precedes its plural noun, of the (or similar: of various, of these, of those, of their etc.) is needed in between, e.g. one of the reasons. Sometimes this noun is replaced by a pronoun, and then of alone is needed (one of them). Sometimes replacement is with a superlative adjective, e.g. one of the best (see 305. Wording next to Superlatives, #5).

One before of + plural / superlative actually represents a singular form, e.g. one (reason) of the reasons (see 165. Confusions of Similar Structures 2, #6).

Ones, by contrast, is only a pronoun. Its plural noun cannot follow it, and descriptive wording is compulsory (red ones; the ones on top). Without such wording, one is replaced by some.

In all cases, one(s) fundamentally implies membership of a larger group, though this idea can be cancelled with special wording, e.g. There is (only) one Taj Mahal. An additional suggestion, also able to be cancelled, is “randomly selected from the group” (see 266. Indicating Alternatives, #5).

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USES

1. Referring to People in General

This familiar pronoun use of one is unusual in lacking a corresponding noun in the surrounding words or environment (see 211. General Words for People). Problems that it can cause for learners of English include distinguishing it from the similar uses of you, they and someone, and choosing the right pronoun when its meaning needs to be repeated (usually one, oneself or one’s: see 204. Grammatical Agreement, #2b).

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2. As a Number

Very little needs saying here about this elementary-level use. A determiner or pronoun, it adds the idea of “single” to the above-mentioned two basic meanings, so that the pronoun cannot be plural (except when referring to symbols, e.g. The number has two ones). In speech, it is often differentiated from other uses of one by being pronounced with more emphasis. In writing, an accompanying word like only or single can do this.

The pronoun occasionally has descriptive wording after it (e.g. one from all the possibilities), but rarely before. The determiner resembles the “indefinite” article a(n). The difference is typically one of emphasis or formality. For example, one instead of a in gave…reason highlights the “single” idea, and in a laboratory report one would be more formal than a before a measurement noun, e.g. one gram was added (see 67. Numbers in Spoken English, #3).

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3. Introducing a Class Member

In this use, one helps to name a member of a just-mentioned class. It usually occupies a new sentence. If other members are also being mentioned, one always introduces the first:

(a) Portuguese is spoken in some African countries. One (country) is Mozambique.

As this shows, one can be either a determiner (with some or all of the class name repeated after it) or pronoun. The latter, being less repetitious, is probably more common.

One used like this has different possible purposes, depending on what follows. If nothing or only a little more is said about the named class member, and no or just a few other class members are subsequently named, one is probably introducing an example. There is no surprise that one can assist exemplification, given that its “others exist” and “random selection” implications are also fundamental to examples (see 1. Simple Example-Giving).

On the other hand, if subsequent sentences just say more about the named class member (Mozambique above), then the randomness of this class member is cancelled so that it is no longer just an example. Some grammarians instead call it “particularization”. In speech, one might be said with emphasis. In writing, its meaning could be made more explicit by adding something like an important… or the main… before one.

Alternatively, if wording like (a) is followed almost immediately by sentences naming all the other members of the mentioned class (Angola, Cape Verde etc.), then one would have a specifying purpose, as defined within these pages in 117. Restating Generalizations More Specifically. The subsequent sentences would be as described in 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists. There is a subtype of this use in which one combines with a later the other to name a difference within a previously-identified pair:

(b) There were two balls. One was red, the other blue.

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4. Introducing Other Kinds of Information

In this use, it is not one that indicates the purpose of its sentence, but a noun after it:

(c) Railways are a more desirable transport means than motor vehicles. One reason is…

Once again, one may or may not be indicating the start of a list. The determiner use shown above also, perhaps, implies that the writer does not know the entire list. To suggest such knowledge, one of the reasons seems preferable. Using a instead of one is also possible, suggesting the writer is unsure whether other possibilities exist.

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5. Replacing an Ordinary Noun

The pronoun one can represent other nouns besides class names:

(d) The box contained balls. Participants chose one.

Here, the noun represented by one (balls) is mentioned before it. Later mention is also possible, e.g. Participants chose one of several balls.

The noun-replacement use of one resembles the number use in that it adds the idea of “single” to the basic suggestions of “not all” and “random”. The difference is that it is less emphatic about this idea, its plural being ones or some rather than another number. However, this distinction is not always clear, and sometimes the number meaning has to be indicated more clearly by adding only.

Used alone, as in (d), one cannot follow a(n) or the (or similar). However, with descriptive wording in front, one of these is compulsory, with or without descriptive wording after, e.g. a/the red one (below). By contrast, if there is only descriptive wording after one, the choice before it must be between the (e.g. the one below) and nothing at all (one below). The one in this situation sometimes needs replacement by that (e.g. that below: see 63. Constraints on Using “the one/s”).

The plural of one in (d) is some. As mentioned earlier, ones is only possible when descriptive wording is also present. Regardless of whether this wording is before or after, sometimes the ones must be used, sometimes just ones – the plural meaning rules out a(n). Replacement of the ones is again sometimes necessary – by those instead of that – when the descriptive wording comes after.

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6. Facilitating Adjective Use

There are two notable situations where an adjective requires a/the…one or (the)…ones. The first is when the adjective needs to be in a “complement” position (with the noun it describes placed earlier and separated by BE or other link verb), but is the kind of adjective that can only describe a noun after it. Consider the following standard adjective complement:

(e) Among causes of death, heart disease is well-known.

Here, the adjective well-known is describing heart disease before it. Very many adjectives can be used in a similar way (see 220. Features of Complements, #2). However, there are exceptions. For example, leading, though suitable in terms of its meaning as a direct alternative to well-known, would not fit in grammatically.

There is no logical reason why leading should not be usable by itself after BE: it just belongs to a smallish group of English adjectives that have this restriction. Most grammar books list the main ones, and it is helpful that particular types of meaning tend to be involved. For a survey in this blog, see 184. Adjectives with Limited Mobility.

The problem with leading, however, can be overcome by combining it with a…one, producing …is a leading one. Even regular adjectives like famous could combine with one in this way. Note, though, that not every limited-mobility adjective can combine with one(s). The above-mentioned post gives some indication of which can. Other common ones include alternative, former, future, main, only, previous and upper.

The second notable situation requiring one(s) after an adjective is where the sentence position occupied by the adjective needs a noun as well, but mentioning the noun associated with the adjective would sound repetitious:

(f) Of the available options, a suitable one was hard to find.

Here, the adjective suitable needs a following noun because it occupies the noun position of subject (of was), yet adding the noun it describes (option) would repeat a recent mention. One solves the problem because it is able as a pronoun to occupy noun positions.

In not allowing lone adjectives in noun positions, English differs from some other languages. However, English does allow some exceptions to this rule, especially adjectives in the comparative or superlative form: the most suitable above could keep or drop one (see 102. Adjectives with no Noun 2, #1).

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7. Other Uses

One time implies selection from multiple occurrences – unlike once, which leaves the existence of other occurrences unclear (see 227. Time Adverbs, #1, II).

After BE, one can be an adjective meaning “united” (People were one in opposing…), but cannot be a number (see 184. Adjectives with Limited Mobility, #1).

The one can mean “the only one” before a noun (the one problem is…) and “the special one” by itself (He is the one).

Using one before someone’s name (e.g. one Emily Martin) suggests, like a(n) and a certain, that the addressee is unfamiliar with the person in question (for a discussion of certain, see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #2). In addition, however, one suggests that the person is rather strange or unusual.

The + adjective + ones (e.g. the young ones) with all-referring general meaning is more positive-sounding than just the + adjective (as discussed in 6. Adjectives with no Noun 1). It perhaps implies that its user belongs to the mentioned group.

259. Multi-Word Connectors

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Many fixed phrases can show a meaning link between two sentences

MULTI-WORD CONNECTORS IN ENGLISH

Connectors are adverb-like expressions that show how the meaning of their sentence is related to that of one normally placed before (see 18. Relations between Sentences). Common examples are therefore, however and otherwise. A typical use is:

(a) Manufacturers must invest in new equipment. Otherwise, they will lose custom.

Here, otherwise says its sentence is naming the outcome of not acting in the way described in the sentence before (invest in new equipment). In other words, it signals a kind of “opposite consequence”.

Connector meanings are often able to be expressed by a conjunction instead – e.g. or in (a) – but in one sentence rather than two (see 40. Conjunctions versus Connectors). The whole-sentence focus of connectors makes them especially useful for clarifying overall paragraph structure (see 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists,  167. Ways of Arguing 1 and 210. Process Descriptions).

Connectors have to be distinguished from other kinds of sentence-focussed adverb. In the following, technically starts its sentence in the same way as otherwise above, but it does not show a link with an external statement:

(b) Technically, “the” is not an adjective.

Other adverbs usable like this this include surprisingly and naturally. For an extensive list and classification, see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs.

Confusingly, there are also some expressions that sometimes act as a connector and sometimes do not. Generally is a connector when accompanying a generalisation based on preceding specific instances, but not when merely signalling that the statement after it is a general one. Sometimes can have the connector meaning of “some of these (just-mentioned) times” but also the non-connector one of “some of all possible times”.

Most grammarians and English coursebook writers include among their connector examples some multi-word expressions like for example, that is to say and as a result. This is not such a revolutionary thing to do, since multi-word prepositions and conjunctions are also recognised (see 221. Multi-Word Prepositions and 230. Multi-Word Conjunctions). A key requirement for recognising a group of words as a multi-word version of any of these word types is the typicality of their combination: it must be sufficient for the expression as a whole to be considered a standard word partnership, or “collocation”.

A slight problem with such a criterion is its subjectivity, since there are some connector-like word combinations about which people’s judgements might vary. For example, (a) above would say the same thing if otherwise was replaced by if this does not happen, but would that still be a connector? It cannot be rejected because it comprises a conjunction (if) with a subject and verb, since that is also a feature of some combinations that most analysts do accept as connectors, like that is to say (that). On the other hand, it cannot be accepted as a connector on the grounds that it has the same effect, since English has numerous non-adverbial (and therefore non-connector) expressions that do that (see 112. Synonyms of Connectors).

Despite such problems, multi-word connectors still appear to be as surprisingly numerous as multi-word prepositions and conjunctions, and hence deserving of a place in this blog. My aim here is to illustrate, explain and analyse the wide variety of phrases that are always or sometimes connectors, especially those that seem likely to appear in formal writing.

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SURVEY OF POSSIBILITIES

Multi-word connectors do not all have the same grammatical form. The following list is organised around the major differences. Highlighted items indicate a link to a Guinlist post containing usage information.

1. Preposition Phrases

Any relevant combination beginning with a preposition falls into this group. Considering that preposition phrases are a major alternative to adverbs in general in English (see 85. Preposition Phrases and Corresponding Adverbs), it is not surprising that they are a sizeable category of multi-word connectors. Examples are:

above all, after all, after a while, after some time, after that, among these, as a conclusion, as a matter of fact, as a/(the) result, as such, at any rate, at last, at least, at once, at that moment/ point, at that time, at the same time, at this, before this, besides this, by contrast, by the way, despite that, during this process, during this time/ period, for all that, for example, for instance, for one thing, for this reason, in addition, in any case, in any event, in a similar vein, in contrast, in a similar way, in comparison, in conclusion, in consequence, in general, in other words, in particular, in reality, in short, in sum, in summary, in that case, in the end, in the event, in the first place, in the meantime, in the process, in the same way, in this respect, in time, in turn, in view of this, of course, on the contrary, on the one hand, on the other hand, on the plus side, on top of that, with that

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2. Verbs with a Joining Device

“Joining device” is my term for any linguistic option that allows a verb to exist in a sentence with another one. It includes conjunctions, relative pronouns, relative adverbs, question words, semi-colons, participle endings and the to form of verbs (see 30. When to Write a Full Stop). In the following list, joining devices are underlined:

be that as it may, following (on from) this, this is because, that is to say (that), that is why, that said, to continue, to cut a long story short, to finish, to repeat, to resume, to start with, what is more

Borderline combinations of this kind perhaps include if this does not happen and the reason is that.

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3. Adverb-Based Phrases

Connectors in this category contain neither a preposition nor a verb but normally have an identifiable central noun or adverb:

all the while, all this time, even so, better (or worse) still, first and foremost, first of all, last but not least, last of all, later on, more accurately, more precisely, more specifically, most of all, then again, the whole time

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4. Other

all in all, all the same, if not, if so, that is

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OBSERVATIONS

It is obvious above that most multi-word connectors are preposition phrases. Within these, that is quite common after the preposition. In many cases, this is an alternative, the difference usually being one of historical or psychological “distance” (see 234. Adjective and Pronoun Uses of “that”).

The variety of prepositions usable with that/this raises the question of whether any preposition can form a connector with these words. I suspect that many prepositions can indeed make a connector-like link in this way, but many of the combinations would have to be ruled out as “proper” connectors because they are not common. For example, under that seems a very unlikely but still possible way of showing a meaning link between sentences. Combinations with like seem more connector-like, but perhaps should be considered borderline rather than definite connectors.

In the second category, infinitive verbs (with to) are as common, it will be seen, as that in the first. This is hardly surprising: just as this and that are the most natural means of representing a previous statement, so verbs are a natural means of naming a link with one, and the infinitive form is a very common way of fitting any kind of text-describing verb into a sentence (see the end of 183. Statements between Commas).

Another feature that infinitives share with that is the ability to make connector-like phrases that are quite novel and hence not very fixed, such as to elaborate, to say why and to give another example. Once again, the lack of fixedness of such phrases can rule them out as true connectors.

Note, finally, that some of the phrases above have a non-connector use – typically preposition-like – as well as their connector one. They include for example (illustrated in detail elsewhere in this blog in 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #4), in other words, in particular, more accurately and that is to say.

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NOTABLE MEANINGS

The overall number of multi-word connectors makes it impractical for all of their meanings and uses to be elaborated here. However, there are some that are not considered elsewhere in this blog but perhaps merit special attention. Two – as such and more so – have a use in some regional varieties of English that is not found in Standard English.

The non-standard use of as such is as an exact equivalent of therefore. In Standard English, as such only sometimes equates to therefore. Here is a sentence where both are possible:

(c) Reptiles cannot generate much body heat of their own. As such (or Therefore), they need regular exposure to the heat of the sun.

One way to check whether as such is possible is to see whether the sentence still sounds logical with as replaced by its synonym being. This is the case in (c), but would not be if the underlined words were changed to lose heat at night. Two conditions make both as and being possible. One is that the subject of the verb in the second sentence (they) should mean the same as the subject of the verb in the first (reptiles). The other is that the first sentence should describe a state rather than action.

The non-standard use of more so is as a connector meaning moreover. In Standard English, more so is not a connector at all, but a way to express the comparative meaning of an already-mentioned adjective or manner adverb without repetition. So refers to the adjective or adverb rather as pronouns refer to a preceding noun:

(d) The weather is hot all year but (is) more so in February.

(e) Farmers work hard all year but more so at harvest time.

In (d), so refers to the earlier adjective hot, thus making more so an adjective phrase meaning “hotter”. In (e), so repeats the meaning of the earlier adverb hard, thus making more so an adverb phrase meaning “harder”.

Another slightly tricky connector is on the other hand. Sometimes it follows a statement prefaced by on the one hand (with the before one) and sometimes it does not. The first use names two opposing features of a single person or thing, separated by a comma, semi-colon or full stop:

(f) On the one hand, everyone in the village is friendly; on the other (hand) they always carry a gun.

Such descriptions are usually objective, without implicit judgement. More significance can be given to the second half by removing the two linking expressions and placing a simple but in the middle (see 51. Making Concessions with “May”).

On the other hand by itself, however, has a wider contrastive use, indicating a simple difference between two separate people or things (see the end of 216. Indicating Differences). This use is often confused with that of on the contrary (see 20. Problem Connectors, #1).