277. Advantages and Disadvantages

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Descriptions of advantages & disadvantages have recognisable linguistic features, though most are optional

LINGUISTIC FEATURES

Saying what is good and/or bad about something is not difficult in English. However, doing it in a sophisticated and varied way can be a greater challenge, for the obvious reason that that needs a wider, more “advanced” knowledge of the language. It is this need that is the focus here. The aims are to present at least some linguistic possibilities that readers might find new, and to reduce the likelihood of grammar and vocabulary errors associated with this kind of writing.

Descriptions of advantages and disadvantages may be brief, accomplished in as little as a single sentence, or spread out over multiple sentences. It is the latter kind that is the focus here. For some advice on the briefer kind, see 51. Making Concessions with “May”,  168. Ways of Arguing 2 and 159. Exotic Grammar Structures 2, #2.

One question raised by multi-sentence description of advantages and disadvantages – deciding when to mention each particular one – is considered elsewhere in this blog in 222. Information Orders in Texts, #8. Two needs of a more linguistic nature are firstly to find different ways of saying the same kind of thing so as not to sound monotonous, and secondly to use expressions clarifying links between the different points made.

These two needs are the main concern here. Relevant language is first illustrated in a model paragraph and then analysed more closely, in the same way as in other Guinlist posts about multi-sentence information (cf. 115. Surveying Numerical Data and 210. Process Descriptions).

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MODEL PARAGRAPH

Advantages and disadvantages are typically considered in order to assist a choice (see 94. Essay Instruction Words). The choice may be between adopting and not adopting one particular thing, or between various competing alternatives such as test procedures or consumer products.

In the former case it is possible just to describe the advantages and disadvantages of the candidate for adoption, without mentioning the alternative of continuing without it. The latter case, however, necessitates mentioning each candidate’s advantages and disadvantages. It is consequently more complicated, but perhaps more typical. As a result, it is the kind of description illustrated below.

This description considers advantages and disadvantages of different transport types. It is incomplete in that no choice is actually made between the options – in a real situation that might be in the next paragraph (introduced by on balance or overall), along with a justification. The numbers in the description are to assist sentence referencing in the subsequent discussion.

Travelling in Cities

(1) There are six main ways of travelling in cities. (2) The simplest is on foot. (3) This is beneficial in numerous respects, such as its very low cost, provision of exercise, lack of stress, opportunities for reflexion, and very reliable journey time. (4) The main problem with walking, of course, is the time and energy that it takes, although if traffic is heavy the time will not be very much greater than that taken by supposedly faster transport modes. (5) The second way of travelling is by bicycle. (6) This has similar advantages to walking, and is of course quicker; but a major drawback is the serious danger of being hit by a motor vehicle and suffering personal injury or damage to the bicycle, and there is also a risk of unexpected delay due to a puncture. (7) Thirdly one can travel by motor cycle or private car. (8) Provided the traffic is not too dense, this is likely to be the quickest way of travelling.  (9) It is problematic, though, in that fuel and maintenance are relatively expensive, journey times (which depend on traffic) are unreliable, concentration is necessary while driving, and there is a need to park at both ends of the journey. (10) Fourthly, there is the possibility of travelling by private hire taxi. (11) The benefits are similar to those of journeying by private car. Moreover, parking is not a problem, and the stress of driving can be left to somebody else. (12) However, this form of travel has the major disadvantage of being probably the costliest of all, and it can sometimes be difficult to find. (13) The fifth possibility is by bus or shared taxi. (14) This is slower than other forms of motorised road transport, but it is cheaper, it may be quicker than bicycle travel (provided the number and length of stops are limited), and it again allows attention to be given to other things than driving. (15) Finally, there are railways. These are a relatively cheap and environmentally friendly form of motorised transport, and they stand out for speed and lack of congestion. (16) On the other hand, they are rarely “door-to-door”, necessitating further journeys to and from stations, and trains are notorious for unreliability and cancellations.

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ANALYSIS OF THE PARAGRAPH

The organization of the paragraph is fairly typical. Each option is considered in turn and in full, with its advantages listed together before its disadvantages – not alternating with them. The following linguistic features are notable:

1. List Language

The amount of information about each transport option means that the list of six occupies multiple sentences rather than just one. There is a consequent need for the kind of listing language that this blog considers in depth in 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists. Notable features are the typical introductory There are… sentence (with a following full stop, not colon), a superlative adjective (the simplest) introducing the first option, and number words (the second, thirdly etc.) before the others.

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2. Comparison Language

To compare is to note similarities and differences. Differences in particular are implicit in the idea of advantages and disadvantages, and hence likely in their descriptions. One common means of naming differences is comparative and superlative adjectives and adverbs, or their equivalents. Examples in the paragraph are simplest (sentence 2), greater and faster (S4), quicker (S6), quickest (S8), relatively expensive (S9), the costliest (S12), slower, cheaper and quicker (S14), and relatively cheap and … friendly (S15).

Although similarities are less likely to be indicated in a description of advantages and disadvantages, they do still sometimes appear, particularly when multiple options are being considered, as above. Examples are in S6 (similar advantages), S11 (are similar) and S14 (again allows). All of these make a comparison with a previously-mentioned option rather than a later one – probably a normal requirement.

Common similarity and difference indicators that are not illustrated above are the preposition like (like X, Y… or Y is like X) and its opposite unlike. For details of these and other similarity and difference expressions, see 149. Saying How Things are Similar and 216. Indicating Differences.

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3. Continuation and Switch Expressions

Each advantage description above is followed by either a new advantage (= continuation) or a disadvantage (= switch). There are no switches from disadvantages to advantages, but this does happen sometimes elsewhere.

Continuation language may be a list comma, signalling that the next (dis)advantage is not the last (cf. cost in S3 and maintenance in S9); or a conjunction (usually and or plus – see 236. Tricky Word Contrasts 9, #7); or and + connector (e.g. and…also in S6); or a separate-sentence link expression – either a connector like moreover in S11 or a connector synonym like another (+ noun meaning “[dis]advantage”) (see 112. Synonyms of Connectors). Other possible continuation connectors are furthermore, additionally, in addition and lastly.

Switch expressions similarly may or may not need a new sentence. The usual one that does not is but (S6 and S14). In new sentences, common connectors are synonyms of but, particularly however (S12), on the other hand (S16), though (S9), yet and on the plus/negative side (see 259. Multi-Word Connectors). A frequent alternative to a switch connector is to start the switch sentence with (dis)advantage(s) or similar, often combined with main or major (cf. S4 and S6).

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4. Nouns Meaning “(Dis)Advantages”

Synonyms of advantages include attractions, benefits (S11), merits, pluses, positive features and strengths, plus the less formal pros, points for and points in favour. Note also not a problem in S11. Benefits often follows the verb BRING (see 273. Verb-Object Collocations). Points is sometimes replaced by arguments (normally a word meaning both an opinion and supporting points: see 167. Ways of Arguing 1). Quite often, points for and arguments for have no following noun.

Synonyms of disadvantages include difficulties, downsides, drawbacks (S6), issues, minuses, negative features, problems, shortcomings, snags and weaknesses, plus the less formal cons and arguments/ points against.

All these nouns can precede detail of either the (dis)advantage or its possessor. The former typically needs of + noun / -ing verb (e.g. the disadvantage of cost: see S12 and 160. Uses of “of”, #4), or a that statement (see the end of 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”). The latter also often involves of (e.g. the disadvantage of walking), though difficulty, issue, problem and snag prefer with (see S4 and 134. Words with a Variable Preposition, #2), while (dis)advantage, benefit and value have in when following there are (see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences, #6).

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5. Adjectives

Most of the advantage adjectives above are the comparative and superlative forms listed in #2 above. I found that other adjectives – related to the positive nouns in #4 – were surprisingly difficult to include, only managing beneficial in S3. Alternatives include attractive, desirable and outstanding. The associated advantage can be named after all of these with in + noun / -ing or in that…, like after comparative adjectives, e.g. beneficial in numerous respects in S3 (see 82. Common Errors in Making Comparisons, #7).

One further advantage adjective is redeeming. It must come after naming of disadvantages because it means not just “beneficial”, but also “compensating (slightly) for the disadvantages” – a metaphorical extension of the religious idea of salvation from suffering (see 137. Words that Reflect English Culture, #5). Its partner noun is usually characteristic, feature or quality, e.g. one redeeming feature is….

Two other positive adjectives, advantageous and preferable, seem more likely to appear after all of the alternatives have been considered, when a particular choice is being recommended.

On the other hand, the negative adjective disadvantageous seems more usable in the main analysis, as are disappointing, poor, problematic, undesirable and weak. After these, the disadvantage is again sometimes stated with in or in that (cf. problematic in S9).

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6. Verbs

The most basic verb for expressing the idea of “(dis)advantage” is HAVE, often followed by the (dis)advantage of/that…, as in S12. Synonyms of HAVE, such as CONTAIN, are unlikely (see 170. Logical Errors in Written English, example #d).

Most other verbs have no object noun. COMPARE, PERFORM and SCORE can combine with well, poorly or (un)favourably (plus on… to show the [dis]advantage). Other advantage verbs include EXCEL (IN), MEET EXPECTATIONS, STAND OUT (FOR) (S15) and SUCCEED (IN). Other disadvantage verbs include COME UP SHORT (ON), DISAPPOINT, FAIL and FALL DOWN (ON).

Also useful, especially when making a final overall judgement, is OUTWEIGH (= “be more valuable than”). The usual format is X outweighs Y, X being a particular advantage, Y a disadvantage (see 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #8).

276. Tricky Word Contrasts 11

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Some word pairs are easily confused because of close similarities in spelling and/or meaning

THE PROBLEM OF TRICKY WORD CONTRASTS

Most users of English have encountered vocabulary items that are easily confused because they resemble each other in spelling and/or meaning. A well-known example – often explained in English language coursebooks – is IMPLY (= convey a message through words that do not say it) versus INFER (= understand a message from words that do not say it). The problem is that such pairs are numerous in English, and many are rarely highlighted so that they are likely to remain unrecognised, or at least not fully differentiated.

It is these rarely-considered confusion sources, especially ones likely to occur in professional writing, that are the focus of the present post, just as they are of various others with a similar title (there is a complete list on the page in this blog entitled Posts on Specific Words). Further posts about vocabulary confusions include 16. Ways of Distinguishing Similar Words,  44. Troublesome Prepositional Verbs,  94. Essay Instruction Words,  211. General Words for People and 240. Nouns that End with “-ing”.

For some grammar contrasts, see 100. What is a Grammar Error?,  133 Confusions of Similar Structures 1 and 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1. For some pronunciation ones, see 144. Words that are Often Heard Wrongly.

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LIST OF CONTRASTS

1. REJECT – REFUTE

The meaning similarity between these verbs is the idea of non-acceptance. REFUTE always links this idea with opinions or arguments, whereas REJECT can link it with numerous other things as well, such as food, people, behaviours and offers. Here, I want to concentrate on the difference when each verb is linked with an opinion or argument.

In this situation, the active form of both verbs usually has a subject referring to a human being and an object representing the problematic argument or opinion. The object must always be visible, usually as a noun or pronoun or (after REJECT) an -ing verb. It cannot be a statement beginning with that (see 279. Grammatical Differences between Citation Verbs).

The object nouns of both verbs are typically derived from speech or thought verbs, mostly the kind that imply an opinion (see 107. The Language of Opinions). Common ones include accusation, argument, belief, claim, hypothesis, idea and suggestion. All may be expanded with a following that statement (e.g. rejects/ refutes the idea that…).

The meaning difference with a belief object is the type of non-acceptance conveyed. REJECT expresses nothing more than non-acceptance, whereas REFUTE means “characterise as unacceptable by means of an argument”. The argument (evidence for an alternative point or questioning of the refuted one: see 168. Ways of Arguing 2) is often not mentioned, but can be added if necessary with by saying… or similar.

One consequence of this difference is that only REJECT can be used after I or we to express disagreement (see 152. Agreeing and Disagreeing Formal Contexts, #4). Its very use can bring about its own action (see 238. Using a Verb to Perform its Action). In everyday life, people reject more often than they refute, but unfortunately the meaning of REJECT is increasingly being expressed with REFUTE.

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2. Mentality – Attitude

Both of these nouns broadly mean “way of thinking”, but the ways are not the same. A mentality is a general disposition or inclination of the mind, liable to influence someone’s entire thinking or a particular range of their beliefs, feelings and behaviours. Attitudes, on the other hand, are feelings about individual things.

The common way of specifying a particular mentality is with a preceding noun or adjective. For example, a football mentality means the general way of thinking that typifies footballers, and a caring mentality indicates a general belief in, and attraction to, caring behaviour. On the other hand, attitudes are often specified with a following to + noun, e.g. an attitude to football or attitudes to war. A preceding adjective can be added (e.g. a negative attitude to war), but it would characterise rather than specify.

Mentality very often seems to appear in discussions of unsocial or even criminal behaviour, with the result that it can sometimes by itself convey a degree of negativity. In other words, it is a word with a slightly “negative connotation” (see 16. Ways of Distinguishing Similar Words, #2). A more neutral synonym might be mindset.

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3. Motive – Motivation

A motive is a personal need or want that causes someone to plan or carry out a particular act. Common needs/ wants that have this effect are financial gain, career advancement and romantic attachment. These could also be called “reasons”, but motives is more precise because reasons has a much wider meaning (see 306. Ways of Giving a Reason). 

Motives are also similar to aims and purposes (see 114. Tricky Word Contrasts 3, #5). They differ, perhaps, in arising more typically than aims and purposes do from their possessor’s own want or need. In other words, while all motives can also be viewed as aims or purposes, the reverse may not always be true. Moreover, purposes (but not aims) often seem to be actions that enable a motive to be accomplished. For example, someone could go to a racecourse with the purpose of placing a bet, their motive being financial gain.

Motivation, on the other hand, is a mostly uncountable noun with two different meanings. One is similar to that of motivating (= causing to be motivated). This is an “action noun” meaning, usable in the various ways considered within this blog in 131. Uses of “Action” Nouns.

The other meaning is, like that of a motive, a personal need that prompts people to do something. What distinguishes it is that the consequential deed tends to be difficult and spread over a longer time period, so that perseverance is required. Thus, it is often not just doing something that motivation in this sense prompts but keeping doing it. It comes close to being a tool, a recipe for success. A well-known activity associated with this meaning is language learning.

When motivation means a feeling rather than event, it is an example of what I have elsewhere called an “activity location” (see 19. Noun Countability Clues 2). It is unusual in being uncountable with this kind of meaning, but not unique (see 280. Alternative Meanings of Action Nouns).

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4. Information – Propaganda

These words stand, of course, for types of communication. One difference is that information can be conveyed consciously or unconsciously while propaganda is typically conscious. Here, though, I wish to consider the difference when information is conscious. There is a tendency to associate propaganda with misinformation and falsehood, but these are not a necessary part of its meaning, as it can deal with truths just as information does. The real difference lies in why the communication occurs.

Information may have no clear purpose – it may just be for the addressee(s) to use as they see fit. Alternatively, it may be offered to a small or large audience to clarify a truth or to assist an everyday behaviour like using a subway or obtaining a credit card. It can also support a point of view, but not usually on behalf of an organized group.

Propaganda, on the other hand, is usually produced by an organized group and aimed at a large number of people. Typically, it uses facts or opinions to influence people’s behaviour, affiliation or ideology. As an example, at the start of the Coronavirus pandemic BBC reporters were often filmed in British hospital intensive care units near patients who were clearly suffering greatly from the disease. The purpose was seemingly not just to inform the public about the nature of the disease – something that could have been done verbally – but also to convince sceptics that the disease really did exist and needed to be taken seriously.

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5. DECIDE ON (doing) – DECIDE (to do)

To decide is to choose from multiple possibilities. On after DECIDE implies that each of various mentioned possibilities has been given some conscious consideration. The chosen possibility follows on in the form of either a noun or an -ing verb (“gerund”). Without on, by contrast, only a following to verb (infinitive) can follow the “choose” use of DECIDE (see 302. Verbs with a Partner Infinitive, #4), and no other possibilities need to be explicit.

When DECIDE is combined with on, it is a “prepositional” verb. For more about it and other verbs that can be used with and without a preposition, see 44. Troublesome Prepositional Verbs.

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6. Enormousness – Enormity

These uncountable nouns are both derived from the adjective enormous meaning extremely large (see 255. Nouns Made from Adjectives). Enormousness just means “huge size”. It can be linked with not just physical objects and dimensions – e.g. the enormousness of the universe / distance – but also abstract ideas like idea, problem, project  or task.

Enormity, on the other hand, combines the ideas of hugeness and evil (either wickedness or disaster). It is typically combined with a following of + the (or possessive adjective, e.g. their) + noun specifying the evil, such as corruption, crimes, damage, deceit, depravity, disaster, mistakes, murder and suffering.

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7. LOOK AFTER – TAKE CARE OF

These two “prepositional” verbs – one of the kind containing a noun (care) – are able between them to express three different meanings. A meaning that they both commonly express is “cater for the needs of (someone)”. It might be said, for example, that workers in a care home look after or take care of the residents, meaning that they give help with basic needs like putting on clothes, showering and cooking.

A second meaning of LOOK AFTER is “supervise” (= ensure that someone vulnerable – for example a child – avoids danger or bad behaviour). In American English, TAKE CARE OF is commonly used with this meaning too, but in British English LOOK AFTER is more often preferred.

A third possible meaning of TAKE CARE OF is “deal with”. It can be used with a need as its object, such as financial matters, or a problem, such as complaints. It is this meaning that is illustrated in the cartoon above.