208. Verbs with an Object + Infinitive

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A verb’s meaning sometimes shows whether or not it can have an object and “to” verb

THE USE OF OBJECT + INFINITIVE AFTER VERBS

English quite often needs the object of a verb to be followed by the to form (infinitive) of another verb. However, such combinations are not all the same. Compare:

(a) Businesses need customers to support them.

(b) Businesses need customers to supply.

(c) Businesses need customers to grow.

Customers in all of these is the object of need. In (a) it is simultaneously the subject of the subsequent verb support (they do it), whereas in (b) it is simultaneously the object of supply (they receive supplies). In (c) customers is neither the subject nor object of the subsequent verb grow (businesses is the subject and there is no object).

This post is about combinations like (a), where a verb’s object is the subject of a subsequent infinitive. The object and infinitive must be equally affected by the first verb’s action: it is not customers in (a) that businesses need but their support (for an illustration of less-affected infinitives, see sentence #h in 239. Nouns Combined with a “to” Verb). The problem with situations like (a) is that the second verb sometimes needs another form than the infinitive, particularly -ing.

The choice between to and -ing after an object often depends on the choice of first verb. INVOLVE is one requiring-ing (see 232. Verbs with an Object + “-ing”). NEED actually allows either to or -ing, enabling its action to seem complete or ongoing. Many verbs, however, allow only to.

This variability of verb properties means a knowledge of infinitive-allowing verbs is necessary in order to prevent incorrect to/-ing choices. Helping to meet this need is the particular concern here.

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THE VARIABILITY OF ENGLISH VERB GRAMMAR

Before viewing the relevant verbs, consider the following variety of dependent structures that are possible after active verbs in English. No verbs allow them all; most allow only one or a few.

1. NO EXTRA WORDS (e.g. increased)

2. VERB + OBJECT (e.g. increased prices)

3. VERB + ADJECTIVE/NOUN COMPLEMENT (e.g. was  difficult/a problem)

4. VERB + INFINITIVE (e.g. needed to know)

5. VERB + -ing VERB (e.g. kept going)

6. VERB + CONJUNCTION… (e.g. thought that they succeeded)

7. VERB + OBJECT + OBJECT (e.g. showed everyone charts)

8. VERB + OBJECT + COMPLEMENT (e.g. made everyone happy)

9. VERB + OBJECT + as + COMPLEMENT (e.g. saw it as a threat)

10. VERB + OBJECT + to VERB (e.g. caused something to happen)

11. VERB + OBJECT + -ing VERB (e.g. saw someone running)

12. VERB + OBJECT + PREPOSITION (e.g. took note of…)

The pattern(s) allowed by a particular verb cannot be reliably identified from its meanings. The verbs CEASE and STOP, for example, are similar in meaning and in both allowing #1, #2 and #5 above, but the former also allows an infinitive (#4), the latter an object + -ing (#11) (see 250. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar, #2). CRITICISE, despite being a speech verb, does not allow #6, instead requiring #9 or #12 (see 279. Grammatical Variability of Citation Verbs).

The relevant pattern here is #10. If the verb is passive, with its object as its subject, the infinitive usually follows it directly (see 299. Infinitives after a Passive Verb, #1).

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VERBS BEFORE AN OBJECT + INFINITIVE (QUIZ)

The following quiz may illustrate the difficulty of identifying verbs usable with an object + infinitive.

Quiz

Decide which of the verbs in each list are grammatically possible in their neighbouring space. There may be more than one. Answers follow after.

1. Invigilators must … candidates to copy from each other.

   (A) prevent    (B) forbid    (C) stop    (D) allow

2. Forest destruction … global temperatures to rise.

   (A) helps    (B) facilitates    (C) results    (D) leads

3. Most people … war to be avoided.

   (A) wish    (B) prefer    (C) desire    (D) hope

4. Nobody should … success to come easily.

   (A) enjoy    (B) believe    (C) expect    (D) promise

5. Schools … parents to help their children with homework.

   (A) rely on    (B) envisage    (C) recommend    (D) would love

6. Safe driving … respect to be shown to other drivers.

   (A) involves    (B) requires    (C) demands    (D) sees

7. Caesar … his soldiers to make great sacrifices.

   (A) demanded    (B) prayed    (C) called on    (D) encouraged

8. One can … an animal to move by offering food.

   A) coax    (B) trigger    (C) initiate    (D) assist

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Answers

1 = B + D (allow is grammatical despite being unexpected); 2 = A + D;  3 = A + B + C;  4 = C;  5 = A + D;  6 = B;  7 = C +D;  8 = A + D

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VERBS ALLOWING AN OBJECT + INFINITIVE

The relevant verbs can be classified according to their meaning. Verbs with “cf.” below can change their meaning and hence meaning group.

1. Commanding

ASK (cf. “requesting”)
CHARGE
CALL ON
COMMAND
CONDEMN
DIRECT
FORBID
INSTRUCT
ORDER
REMIND
REQUIRE (cf. “needing”)
TELL
WANT (cf. “desiring”)
WARN…not…
WOULD LIKE (cf. “preferring”)

Verbs like these are commonly said to introduce “indirect commands” (see 150. Verb Choices with Indirect Speech). Many involve the idea of “must” (see 65. Verbs that Mean “Must” or “Can”).

Indirect commands may be reported or non-reported:

REPORTED:  X asked (is asking) Y (or you) to…
NON-REPORTED: I ask you to…

Commands reported with WOULD LIKE must be current at the time of reporting (like commands after is asking above) – WOULD LIKE has no past form. Starting with I or we is typical of non-reported indirect commands (see 238. Using a Verb to Perform its Action).

Infinitives after the object of a command verb mean the command must be carried out by the person(s) expressed by the object. Commands for other people need that… after their object. TELL allows its object to be repeated after that (told X that X should…), but only for advising (see 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1, #4).

Some commanding verbs – e.g. DECREE, DEMAND and PROHIBIT – cannot have an object + infinitive. The error of giving them one could result from the existence of so many verbs with similar meaning that allow it (see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1).

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2. Requesting

APPEAL TO
ASK (cf. “commanding”)
BEG
BESEECH
CALL ON
ENTREAT
INVITE
NEED (cf. “needing”)
REQUEST
WISH (cf. “wanting”)
WOULD LOVE (cf. “needing”)

These verbs with an object + to either make a request (I ask you to…) or report one. NEED and WISH respectively express “needing” and “wanting” instead of requesting when in past tenses. For more about WISH, see 254. Tricky Word Contrasts 10, #6.

ASK, BEG, WISH and WOULD LOVE can also drop their object so the request is for their own subject to perform the infinitive verb’s action (see 302. Verbs with a Partner Infinitive).

PRAY mostly uses that… instead of object + to….

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3. Persuading

ADVISE
*COAX
*CONVINCE
COUNSEL
DARE
ENCOURAGE
*MOTIVATE
*PERSUADE
PRESS
*PUSH
URGE

These verbs form the third major group commonly associated with indirect “commands”. Those marked * can only report persuasion; the others can also assist it.

DARE and PUSH can drop their object. For more on DARE, see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”.

For a discussion of URGE, see 195. Tricky Word Contrasts 7, #1.

Persuasion verbs with different grammar include ARGUE, RECOMMEND and SUPPORT. For details of RECOMMEND, see 187. Advising and Recommending.

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4. Needing

COUNT ON
DEPEND ON
NEED (cf. “requesting”)
RELY ON
REQUIRE
TRUST

All of these except TRUST allow -ing after their object as well as to: -ing highlights continuation within the event, to the overall event (see 232. Verbs with an Object + “-ing”). Need verbs that disallow an object + to include CRAVE, HOPE and INVOLVE.

NEED can also have just a following infinitive, or an -ing verb with passive meaning (see the end of 83. Adjectives before a “to” Verb). For other aspects of NEED, see 129. Differences between Necessity Verbs and 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”. For details of REQUIRE, see 292. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar 2, #5.

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5. Desiring

*DESIRE
*HOPE FOR
LIKE
LONG FOR
LOVE
PREFER
WANT (cf. “commanding”)
*WILL
*WISH (cf. “requesting”)
WOULD LIKE (cf. “commanding”)
*WOULD LOVE (cf. “requesting”)
YEARN FOR

Many of these allow -ing after their object as well as to (* shows exceptions). All except HOPE FOR, LONG FOR, WILL and YEARN FOR also allow a lone infinitive. PREFER allows that… as well, while LOVE and LIKE can have it that… (see 190. Special Uses of “it”).

Want verbs that do not allow an object + to include APPRECIATE, ENJOY, CRAVE, HOPE and negative REFUSE. For more about the first two, see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1, #b.

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6. Anticipating and Planning

AIM FOR+
ARRANGE FOR+
*EXPECT
HOPE FOR
*INTEND
*MEAN
PLAN FOR+
*PREPARE
PRIME
TIP
TRUST
WAIT FOR

In addition, FORECAST, FORESEE and PREDICT allow to be (but no other infinitive) after their object.

ANTICIPATE and ENVISAGE need -ing or that… after their object instead of to…, and FORECAST, FORESEE and PREDICT do too when not combined with BE (see 242. Words with Unexpected Grammar 3, #d). In the passive voice, however, all these verbs need to.

Verbs marked * also allow an infinitive without an intervening noun; + indicates a choice between to and -ing. For more on AIM and INTEND, see 114. Tricky Word Contrasts 3, #5. 

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7. Causing

*ALLOW
ARRANGE FOR
*ASSIST
*CAUSE
COERCE
*COMPEL
ENABLE
*FORCE
HAVE
*HELP (cf. “teaching”)
IMPEL
*INDUCE
LEAD
LEAVE (= allow by freeing or not stopping)
LET
MAKE
*PERMIT
*PROMPT
*REQUIRE
*STIMULATE

About 50% of cause verbs allow an object + infinitive. HAVE, LET and MAKE must drop to from the following infinitive (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”), while HELP allows a choice. None in the list can have a lone infinitive, but those marked * can have just an object.

For cause verbs that need an alternative construction – e.g. ENTAIL, FACILITATE, LEAD TO and MEAN – see 32. Expressing Consequences.

Note the absence of STOP from the above list. To name a stopped action, the verb after STOP’s object needs -ing, not to (see 250. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar 1, #2). Using to is a common error. It is only correct for expressing a purpose of STOP’s subject. For example, X stopped the film to explain means X intended to explain.

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8. Recruiting

APPOINT
CHOOSE
CONSCRIPT
DECREE
ELECT
NAME
NOMINATE
RECRUIT

All of these are alternatively usable with an object complement (noun or adjective after their object: see 220. Features of Complements). NAME above means “decree”. For how this differs from NOMINATE, see 236. Tricky Word Contrasts 9, #2.

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9. Believing (mainly with to be/have)

ACKNOWLEDGE
ASSUME
*BELIEVE
*CONSIDER
DENY
ESTIMATE
EVALUATE
FEEL (cf. “sensing”)
*FIND (cf. “sensing”)
FORESEE
FORECAST
GUESS
HOLD
IMAGINE
INTERPRET
*JUDGE
KNOW
PERCEIVE
PICTURE
PREDICT
PRESUME
REGARD
SEE (cf. “sensing”)
SUPPOSE
TAKE
*THINK
UNDERSTAND
VIEW
VISUALISE

It needs to be emphasised that the only infinitive forms possible after an object of these verbs are to be and to have, with that necessary otherwise, e.g. …assume that X works.

Verbs marked * can drop to be altogether (transforming what follows into an object complement). A few others, such as TAKE and UNDERSTAND, allow as instead (though with TAKE the meaning changes: see 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE, #16). SUPPOSE sometimes changes its meaning when passive (see 81. Tricky Word Contrasts 2, #3).

Belief verbs that do not normally allow an object + infinitive include AGREE and DISAGREE.

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10. Establishing (mainly with to be/have)

*DECLARE
DEFINE
*DEMONSTRATE
*ESTABLISH
IDENTIFY
*IMPLY
PAINT
PORTRAY
*PROCLAIM
*PRONOUNCE
*PROVE
RECOGNISE
*SHOW (= prove)

Again, a following infinitive is typically to be or to have. Verbs marked * allow that + BE instead; the others allow as + noun (see 92. Verbs with an Object + “as”) or as -ing.

Verbs like the above that cannot have to – preferring as instead – include CRITICISE, DESCRIBE (usually), THINK OF and TREAT.

 

11. Teaching

COACH
HELP (cf. “causing”)
TEACH
TRAIN

Among other teaching verbs, EXPLAIN needs especial care: its object must be the explained idea, not the addressee, and any naming of the addressee must be after the preposition to: EXPLAIN (something) to (someone). The only way to include an explained action is with how… – see 140. Words with Unexpected Grammar 2, #b.

EDUCATE, SHOW, TUTOR and non-commanding INSTRUCT and TELL all need the addressee as their object like TEACH, but no following infinitive. SHOW and TELL can add either a second noun or indirect speech, especially questions with a to verb (…showed X how to…). The others often have in + noun, e.g. INSTRUCT (someone) in (something).

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12. Sensing

FEEL (cf. “believing”)
HEAR
LISTEN TO
NOTICE
OBSERVE
SEE (cf. “believing”)
SENSE
SMELL
WATCH

An infinitive after the object of these verbs cannot have to. Note, though, that to becomes necessary (with be or have) after FEEL and SEE when they mean “believe” (see 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1, #6).

If the infinitive after the above verbs is passive (e.g. …saw X be given help), be can be dropped along with to (see 192. When BE can be Omitted, #4).

An alternative to the infinitive after sense verbs is an -ing form highlighting the continuousness of the event (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, compulsory use #2).

207. Exotic Grammar Structures 4

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Some English grammar structures are unlikely to be described in language coursebooks

THE NATURE OF “EXOTIC” STRUCTURES

The word “exotic” seems an appropriate one to describe grammar structures that are rarely, if ever, explained in English courses. The fact that this is the fourth Guinlist post on such structures is an indication that there are plenty of them (for a list of the other posts, see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1).

A few exotic grammar structures are absent from coursebooks because they have not been clearly identified by grammarians. Many, however, are left out because course designers usually lack the space to cover the whole of English grammar and, forced to make choices, tend to give priority to the more common structures in the belief that those will enable learners to have the greatest success in future communication.

Nevertheless, exotic grammar structures can still be useful, and even interesting, to know, especially for English users with a more advanced competence, who are the target audience of this blog. There are five that I have to offer this time.

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LIST OF EXOTIC STRUCTURES

1. Apparent Passives of Intransitive Verbs

Intransitive verbs (which cannot have an “object” noun or equivalent) cannot be in the passive voice, with BE before and -ed after (see 113. Verbs that cannot be Passive). *Is remained, for example, is an impossible form of REMAIN. Yet there are some intransitive verbs that seem to break this rule. Consider the following use of GO:

(i) When the police arrived, the money was gone.

GO here is definitely in the typical form of passive verbs. Yet, it is not a true passive, since its meaning does not differ in the same way from its active equivalent (went) as most normal passives do (see 21. Active Verbs with Non-Active Meanings). Instead, the meaning of was gone is more like that of the past perfect active form had gone, where the gone is also not passive (following the general rule that “past” participles after HAVE are more “past” than “passive”).

Both was gone and had gone express states. The difference between them is perhaps that the former focuses attention more on the final state, the latter on the action causing it (though gone, in following BE, is still more verb-like than adjective-like: see 245. Adjectives with a Participle Ending, #2). This difference resembles the one between ordinary stative passives like were freed and those with HAVE BEEN like had been freed (see 66. Types of Passive Verb Meaning, under “Adjective Meaning”). For more about GO, see 176. Ways of Using GO.

There are only a small number of intransitive verbs that can be used in the same way as GO. Common ones are COME, ARRIVE, DEPART, DISAPPEAR, FAIL,  FALL and RISE. Their use often has a poetic feel (…were fallen in battle; …are departed from this life). To them might be added a use of passive DO with living subject nouns. With non-living subject nouns a passive like is done has the expected meaning of “is performed” (e.g. Work is done). However, with a living subject (e.g. Everyone is done) it normally means “has finished” (see 213. Special Uses of “Do” 2, #1).

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2. Noun + Relative Clause instead of “so” + Adjective

An example of this structure is:

(a) The wealth (that) people had, they could buy luxury cars.

The underlined part comprises a noun (wealth) followed by a relative pronoun (that, which, who etc.) that can sometimes be left unmentioned but still understood. The sentence means the same as:

(b) People had so much wealth that they could buy luxury cars.

In both cases, the underlined half of the sentence gives a cause of a consequence named by the other half (see 32. Expressing Consequences). The positions of the two halves are reversible:

(a1) People could buy luxury cars, the wealth (that) they had.

(b1) People could buy luxury cars, they had so much wealth.

For more on reversal with the so use, see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1.

The noun that expresses the meaning of so usually includes or implies the idea of “amount”, “level” or “number”; for example the wealth in (a) is equivalent to the amount of wealth. For a fuller discussion of sentences like (a), along with further examples, see 200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses, #5.

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3. “What” Highlighting Applied to “it” Sentences

The use of what to clearly indicate which part of a sentence is its focus is described in detail within these pages in 145. Highlighting with “What” Sentences. An example, with the highlighted part underlined, is:

(c) What plants do at night is absorb carbon dioxide.

Key features here are what placed at the start, and the highlighted words placed at the end after is (or other form of BE).

There are various kinds of it sentence, but the relevant one here uses it as a “dummy” subject representing a later-mentioned verb statement, like this:

(d) It is impossible to reach other stars.

(e) It seems a shame that poverty still exists.

The statements represented by it in each sentence are underlined. The main reason why they are not at the beginning is their length. For a fuller analysis, see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “it”.

The sentence type that I wish to present here combines the above two types:

(f) What seems a shame IS that poverty still exists.

Here, the that part of (e) – the “real” subject of the main verb seems – is highlighted by the what structure as the key information in the sentence. To compose the sentence you simply replace it with what and add is before that. It might be instructive to try rewording sentence (d) in the same way, before looking at the following suggestion.

(g) What is impossible IS to reach other stars.

One especially common type of what is… sentence with a later to verb indicates importance (see 199. Importance and Unimportance, #3).

The object of a to verb at the end of an it sentence (other stars above) can be highlighted by placing is before it rather than before the to verb. There is then the option of adding it after what:

(h) What (it) is impossible to reach IS other stars.

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4. Whole-Sentence Indirect Speech

Indirect speech is usually only part of a sentence – most typically the object of a speech or thought verb (see 127. When to Use Indirect Speech), like this:

(i) Rousseau BELIEVED that morality is better decided by conscience than by reason.

Indirect speech becomes more like an independent sentence, but is still not totally independent, when a speech or thought verb accompanies it in a parenthesis, like this:

(j) Morality, Rousseau BELIEVED, is better decided by conscience than by reason.

For more on such sentences, see 183. Statements between Commas.

However, it is possible under certain circumstances for sentences like (j) to altogether drop the words in the parenthesis (Rousseau believed) and still be understood as indirect speech. This happens if the sentence before gives the relevant clue, e.g.:

(k) ROUSSEAU BELIEVED that the human conscience evolves the clearest understanding of right and wrong. Morality is better decided by conscience than by reason.

A further clue to the presence of indirect speech in situations like (k) is often a past tense verb. Just as ordinary indirect speech is likely to be given such a verb because the verb introducing it is one, so the verb of whole-sentence indirect speech is often in a past tense when the “understood” speech verb (believed above) also is. Thus, in (k) the verb is after morality could easily be was instead, thereby clearly signalling indirect speech (see 171. Aspects of the Past Perfect Tense).

Indirect questions can just as easily be signalled by a previous sentence as statements can. Surprisingly, though, they must keep most of the features of direct questions, inverting their subject and verb and ending with a question mark, like this:

(l) CAESAR URGED his soldiers to keep marching. Where was their famous Roman willpower?

Note again the use in the question of was, reflecting the past tense of urged. In this case it is compulsory – the question is not understandable as relating to now.

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5. “No wonder…”

This phrase tends to occur at the start of a sentence, like this:

(m) No wonder languages are difficult to learn.

Used like this, no wonder… is an abbreviation of it is no wonder that… . Thus, the kind of sentence where it occurs is the same as that illustrated by (e) above: starting with a “dummy” it representing a later verb statement (here underlined).

The statement after no wonder expresses a consequence. As a result, there must be a recognised cause or reason (see 32. Expressing Consequences). Usually this will have been mentioned in a previous sentence, in which case no wonder is showing the link between them as if it were a “connector” (see 112. Synonyms of Connectors). An alternative, however – again as with most consequences – is to have the cause in the same sentence as no wonder, usually after the preposition with. One could, for example, begin sentence (m) With the size of their vocabularies, … .

The literal meaning of no wonder is plain enough: a suitable paraphrase would be it is not surprising (that)… (which does not similarly allow it is to be dropped in formal communication). However, there is a further important aspect: the verb statement after no wonder must say something that the addressee knows already, so that the main message of the sentence is just the meaning of no wonder. The usage is thus similar to that of that is why (see 20. Problem Connectors, #5) and of course (see 156. Mentioning what the Reader Knows Already, #4).

Thus, sentence (m) assumes that the reader already knows that languages are difficult to learn, and is just asserting that the difficulty is unsurprising in view of the previously-stated cause.

206. Ways of Conveying a Name

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The language available for saying the name of something allows subtlety and variation of expression

NAME CONVEYING IN ENGLISH

Most readers of this blog are already familiar, I am sure, with English ways of conveying a name. What I am seeking to do here is to offer alternatives that may not be so familiar, my belief being that the ability to identify and choose between linguistic alternatives is a major indication of advanced linguistic competence. I also want to highlight some subtle differences between some of the alternatives, since knowledge of these can help appropriate choices to be made.

A name is a standard way of referring to someone or something. Some names in English are nouns of the “proper” kind, with a starting capital letter and fairly simple article usage (typically with or without the – see 47. Article Errors with Proper Nouns); some are ordinary (“common”) nouns that follow ordinary rules for the and a(n); and some are phrases.

Many names are uninformative about what they represent, but some include descriptive information. The name Britain, for example, only represents the country, but The United States of America describes it as well. Similarly, a chair does not in itself indicate its meaning, but a vacuum cleaner does. Descriptive names need to be distinguished from descriptions that are not names, like the large island south of India. These latter are not the standard way of referring to something: usually there is another noun that we would recognise as the name, such as Sri Lanka.

It is only when there is doubt about whether an expression is a standard representation that doubt also exists about whether it is a name. Newly-coined descriptive names, such as the wild garden in a school, seem the most likely to create such doubt (see 62. Choices with Capital Letters).

To convey a name is not just to inform others of it, but also usually to indicate that it is either previously established, so that making it known is just a report (“relay”), or newly created by the writer. As one might expect, the need to convey names is quite widespread in professional writing: names are often needed, for example, for new concepts or new products. In order to survey the different ways of conveying a name, it is useful to divide them into two main kinds: with and without a verb.

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NAME CONVEYING WITH A VERB

1. Name Verbs

The verb NAME and its synonyms form an obvious and typical group of name verbs. The main synonyms are ALLUDE TO…AS, CALL, DESIGNATE, DUB, KNOW…AS, LABEL, REFER TO…AS, SPEAK OF…AS and TERM. Most of them are also usable for describing – NAME and TERM seem the only exceptions.

Conveying a name involves three separate “participants”: the user of the name, its possessor, and the name itself. The grammatical requirements of all the above verbs in the active voice reflect these three needs, since they are again three in number: a subject (= name user), an object (= name possessor), and an object complement (= name), e.g.:

(a) Doctors (= SUBJ) call bird flu (=OBJ) avian influenza (OBJ COMP).

As this shows, the name, as the object complement, is typically given last (putting it first would need an expression like BE THE NAME GIVEN… – see below). For details of object complements, see 92. Verbs with an Object + “As”.

Name verbs are often used in the passive form. The reason is that the user of the name – the necessary subject of the active form – is often best left unmentioned. In many cases, it will not be known at all; in others it will be obvious or unimportant; and in others – for example when it is a personal pronoun like I – its mention would sound inappropriate (see 46. How to Avoid “I”, “We” and “You”). However, using the passive has no impact on the position of the name itself: it remains at the end. This position suits the name being the primary message, which it usually is with such verbs.

It is important to note which verbs listed above include as and which do not. Variability in the need for as is typical across the whole range of verbs used with an object complement, the resultant potential for errors indeed being the focus of 92. Verbs with an Object + “As”; but as in the wrong place is an especially common error with name verbs (see 140. Words with Unexpected Grammar 2, #g).

As is optional with DESIGNATE and LABEL, not normally usable with CALL, DUB or TERM, and only possible with NAME when it is not name conveying (i.e. when it is identifying or decreeing – see 236. Tricky Word Contrasts 9, #2). Here is an identification use:

(b) The suspect was named as Smith.

Here, named as could be replaced by identified as without changing the meaning. To identify is to give an existing name or a description not in order to tell others what it is as in name conveying, but in order to help someone or something to be recognised.

Another feature of name verbs is that, with the important exception of KNOW…AS, all can indicate both relaying an existing name, as in (a) above, and giving a new one (KNOW…AS is usable only for relayed names). The giving of a new name may or may not be done through the very use of the name verb (see 238. Using a Verb to Perform its Action).

A formal way of using a name verb to give a new name is with the passive voice after can (or may or might):

(c) Sentences that both name an example and add details about it may be called complex exemplification.

We understand here that complex exemplification is a new name, composed by the writer, for the defined concept. To mark it as a generally-recognised term – to relay rather than allocate the name – the verb would be are called.

The use of can etc. with passive verbs to imply the writer’s own thinking is quite common in professional writing (see 237. Auxiliary Verbs in Professional Communication, #4). Other notable locations are before definitions (e.g. can/may be defined as: see 286. Repeating in Different Words), opinions in an argument (e.g. can be argued: see 107. The Language of Opinions) and classifications (e.g. can be classified: see 162. Writing about Classifications).
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2. Other Verbs

In addition to the above verbs, one or two others can convey a name. The simplest is BE. It tends to occur with relayed rather than newly created names. Its name-conveying use has to be distinguished from an identifying one (see 117. Restating Generalizations more Specifically). Consider the following:

(d) A two-wheeled conveyance powered by human energy is a bicycle.

If this was the answer to a question in a quiz, where the challenge was not so much to know the name bicycle as to recognise the meaning of its rather technical definition, is would be identifying rather than name conveying . Most people in such a situation would already be very familiar with bicycle and its meaning. Using is called or an equivalent in such circumstances would sound strange.

Yet sentences like (d) could also be name-conveying. Imagine (d) spoken by an English tutor to a learner so as to teach the new word bicycle. This would be relaying the name bicycle, turning the sentence into what is sometimes called a “naming statement” (see 286. Repeating in Different Words, #2).

A more reliably name-conveying use is BE or HAVE with the noun the name or a synonym (term, label). This noun could be a subject or complement of BE, but the subject use is more likely when the name is the primary information: the name of/ for/ given to (possessor) is (name). Of in this combination makes the name almost a property of its possessor (see 163. Ways of Naming Properties). Only name can have it. By contrast, for and given to make the name more like something imposed from without.

With HAVE, the words the name or a synonym must come next, followed by the name itself: (possessor) has the name (of) (name). Here, of means “which is” rather than “belonging to” (see 160. Uses of “of”, noun use #4). Its ability to be left out after the name, leaving an “apposition” construction, is notable because after some preceding nouns, like solution, it is compulsory. Of with this meaning is also optional after label, but must be absent after term.

Two other verbs that can, like HAVE, precede the name + (name) are BE GIVEN (see 244. Special Uses of GIVE, #7) and GO BY/UNDER (see 176. Ways of Using GO, #9). BE GIVEN is especially useful because it allows name allocation with can/may.

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NAME CONVEYING WITHOUT A VERB

Conveying a name without a verb is common when the sentence is about something else, like this:

(f) Vowel sounds originate with the voice box, or vocal chords.

The focus here is not so much on the name vocal chords as on its function. As a result, this name is relayed directly after its description without an intervening verb. Two noun expressions placed together in this way are again an apposition construction (see 77. Apposition, #3).

Name conveying through apposition constructions is important to recognise in reading because it usually offers some information about the meaning of the name, removing the need to consult a dictionary (see 177. How to Guess Meanings in a Text). One sign of apposition-style name conveying is the involvement of two commas or a comma and full stop. There may also be an equivalence-showing expression like or.

Different equivalence-showing expressions are chosen according to how familiar the name is expected to be to the addressee, and whether it follows another name or a description. Links with a description are not expected to be familiar to the addressee (if they are, no commas are used, and the purpose is reminding rather than naming).

Link wording between the two nouns is common, especially or or in other words:

DESCRIPTION + FAMILIAR NAME
The island south of India, … Sri Lanka

– in other words
– that is to say
– i.e.
– namely
– specifically (after a first noun with a/one: see 313. Adverbs Linked Closely to a       Noun, #5)

DESCRIPTION + UNFAMILIAR NAME
The period when dinosaurs existed, … the Mesozoic

– in other words
– or
– namely

UNFAMILIAR NAME + FAMILIAR NAME
The Mesozoic, … dinosaur, era

– in other words
– that is to say
– i.e.
– or

FAMILIAR NAME + UNFAMILIAR NAME
The lion, … Felis leo

– also known as (informally aka)
– or

One other notable name indicator is the adjective so-called. Unlike the indicators above, it does not accompany a name and its possessor but merely marks an expression as a name, e.g. the so-called population explosion, often suggesting a dislike of it.