321. Types of “-ing” Verb after a Verb

.

There are  a variety of circumstances where a verb after another one has “-ing”

THE VARIETY OF POSSIBILITIES

A verb ending with -ing may be an adjective-like “participle” or a noun-like “gerund” (see 71. Gerund and Participle Uses of “-ing”). Either of these forms may combine closely with a verb placed just before them. They can do so in various ways, of which the main ones may be illustrated as follows:

(a) Doctors recommend taking a daily walk.

(b) Doctors foresee children becoming more obese.

(c) Children enjoy hearing (or adults telling) stories.

(d) Children like hearing (or adults telling) stories.

(e) Children can help friends struggling to learn.

(f) Parents should go walking with their children.

(g) A recommended form of exercise is walking.

In (a) here, taking directly follows the verb recommend and is understood as its grammatical object, making it noun-like and hence a gerund. In (b), becoming is separated from the verb foresee by the noun children, the gerund’s subject. Sentence (c) illustrates a verb (enjoy) that can go either directly before an -ing object (hearing) or before an intervening noun (adults telling). In the latter case, both words are the object but the primary meaning is still with the gerund (see 232. Verbs with an Object + “-ing”).

Sentence (d) above is similar to (c), but it illustrates a verb (like) that allows a following -ing verb (hearing, telling) to be replaced by a to (infinitive) verb carrying a slightly different meaning (to hear, to tell).

In (e), struggling follows the verb help and its noun object friends. Unlike in (b) and (c), however, this noun is the primary word in the object – it is only friends that receive the mentioned help, not their struggles. Thus, struggling is merely a description of the type of friends involved, making it adjective-like and hence a participle.

In (f), walking cannot be the object of go before it (because GO is an intransitive verb), but is instead a participle describing the subject of go (parents). In (g), walking is a complement of the verb BE, exactly identifying a recommended form of exercise, the subject of BE (see 117. Restating Generalizations More Specifically, #1). As such, it is a gerund.

The above sentences do not illustrate every possible way in which an -ing verb can follow another verb. One major excluded type is BE + participle, as in Children are playing. It is excluded because the participle is not sufficiently separate from BE, acting instead in partnership with it to make a single verb form, the present continuous tense of WALK. The other major excluded type is what I call “add-on” participles, which are not closely linked to the main verb in the sentence, but describe its subject, like this:

(h) The research ANALYSED markets PAYING particular attention to prices.

Here, the subject of paying is not markets, the object of analysed, but the research, its subject. For discussion of sentences like this, see 101. Add-on Participles.

.

VERBS ASSOCIATED WITH EACH TYPE

1. Verbs like RECOMMEND

There seem to be relatively few verbs after which an -ing verb is always an object/gerund without an intervening noun, as in (a). Common ones are ADVISE, CONSIDER (= decide whether to perform the -ing action), DENY, RECOMMEND, REGRET, REJECT, RESUME and SUGGEST. Of these, ADVISE is most able to have a noun before a following verb, but the verb then needs to be changed into the to form (see 250. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar 1, #3).

.

2. Verbs like FORESEE

Adding a noun before an -ing object, as in (b), is usually necessary after some cause-effect verbs of the prepositional kind, e.g. CONTRIBUTE TO, HOPE FOR, LEAD TO, LONG FOR, RESULT IN (see 32. Expressing Consequences) and WARN OF, plus a small number of other verbs, including DEMONSTRATE (= “present”), DISCOVER (= accidentally encounter”), FORECAST, FORESEE, PREDICT and SHOW (= “present”).

 

3. Verbs like ENJOY

Ability to be used equally with or without a noun before an -ing gerund is probably the most commonly found. Common verbs possessing it include ACCEPT, ANTICIPATE, APPRECIATE, AVOID, CATCH (= “observe … acting secretly”), ENDURE, ENJOY, ENTAIL, ENVISAGE, HINDER, IMAGINE, INSIST ON, INVOLVE, KEEP, LOOK FORWARD TO, MEAN (= entail), (NOT) MIND, MODEL, NECESSITATE, OBSERVE, PHOTOGRAPH, PREVENT, RECORD, RISK, STOP, STUDY and THINK OF (= picture).

.

4. Verbs like LIKE

Verbs that can link with either -ing or to… after them, giving each a different meaning without changing themselves, are of two main types. With the more common, -ing (Children like hearing…) draws attention to its verb’s action through time, whereas an infinitive (Children like to hear…) presents the action as more instantaneous.

Verbs that can make this contrast fall into three meaning groups. LIKE is a like/dislike verb. Similar are LONG FOR, LOVE, PREFER, WANT, YEARN FOR and HATE. However, not all like/ dislike verbs allow the to/-ing choice: only -ing is possible after APPRECIATE, APPROVE OF, DISLIKE, ENJOY, WELCOME, ABHOR, DETEST, DISAGREE WITH and LOATH (see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1, #b). Underlined verbs in both lists can also link with it that… (see 190. Special Uses of “it”, #4).

Next among verbs allowing the above -ing/to… choice are a few that express sensation. Examples are FEEL, HEAR, LISTEN TO, NOTICE, SEE, SENSE, SMELL and WATCH. With these, the choice is better said to involve an “infinitive” than a to verb because to must be dropped (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, #2).

The third choice-allowing group express dependency, with verbs like COUNT ON, DEPEND ON, NEED, RELY ON and REQUIRE. Outside of these three areas, HAVE meaning “cause” also allows the -ing/infinitive choice, the latter again without to (see the end of 116. Rarer Uses of HAVE).

The second broad type of verb that can link with a following verb ending in either -ing or to… also requires the choice to be made according to an aspect of the following verb’s meaning – but not the aspect outlined above.

The verbs FORGET and REMEMBER, for example, need -ing with past remembered events and to with future ones. They allow an intervening noun in the first case but not the second. BEGIN, CEASE and CONTINUE allow either –ing or to…, without any intervening noun. Often, there is no meaning difference, but sometimes there seems to be association with either a single extended action or multiple repeated ones.

TRY needs -ing to imply experimentation with a behaviour, and to… to imply that a preferred behaviour is being attempted with effort that may fail. PROPOSE means “suggest” with -ing and “intend” with to…. OMIT means “not mention” with -ing and “not do” with to…. For more on such distinctions, see 302. Verbs with a Partner Infinitive, #2.

.

5. Verbs with an “-ing” Participle

Any verb that can have a noun object is likely to be usable with a subsequent -ing participle, as in (e) above. Some verbs, such as HELP in (e), will not allow an -ing gerund instead, but some will. With the latter, a double meaning sometimes occurs. Consider this:

(i) Some experiments involve animals suffering pain.

If suffering here is a participle, the message is that suffering pain is not the focus of some experiments. Rather, the type of animals involved in the experiments – those already suffering pain – is being specified. By contrast, if suffering here is a gerund, the message is that animal pain is induced during the experiments (see 257. Structures with a Double Meaning 4, #2).

 

6. Verbs like GO

GO is unusual in allowing a following -ing participle without an intervening noun. The noun it describes is instead the subject of the GO verb. Its most typical meaning in such cases is “go out to enjoy…”. Commonly-used participles are driving, hiking, hunting, riding, running, shopping, swimming, visiting and walking (see 176. Ways of Using “Go”, #3).

Similar to GO -ing are COME -ing (see 290. Ways of Using COME), and TAKE someone -ing (see 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE, #17).

.

7. Verbs like BE

As mentioned above, BE may combine with an -ing participle to make a standard present continuous tense form. However, if the meaning does not fit this interpretation, as in sentence (g), an -ing form is likely to be a gerund (for a particularly interesting example, see 69. How Computers Get Grammar Wrong 2, sentence #b).

The reason for the existence of two possibilities after BE is that it is a verb typically needing a “complement”, a sentence component that may be either adjective-like, opening the way for participles, or noun-like, opening the way for gerunds (see 220. Features of Complements, #2).

Different complement-taking verbs have different requirements. REMAIN is very like BE, but BECOME and SEEM are unlikely to have a following participle (preferring a noun or adjective instead). TURN is unlikely to have either a participle or gerund, normally preferring an adjective. Some complement-taking verbs, moreover, including BE and BECOME, allow a noun before a partner -ing word:

(j) The saddest sight was children begging for food.

In these cases, the distinction between a participle and gerund seems blurred.

320. Special Participle Uses

.

Some participle uses involve only a small subset of participles as a whole

GENERAL AND SPECIAL PARTICIPLE USES

Participles – verbs with -ing or passive -ed acting like adjectives to describe a noun – have a variety of uses that might be termed “general”, for example as a replacement for who or which (see 52. Participles Placed Just after a Noun). Uses that I am calling “special”, on the other hand, are ones that require particular participles instead of allowing a free choice. Most help to form fixed expressions like depending on.

The aim of this post is to identify different types of special participle use, and to illustrate them with as wide a variety as possible of their associated participles. The post thus belongs among various others with “special” in their title, such as 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences,  190. Special Uses of “It”,  200. Special Uses of Relative Clauses and 235. Special Uses of “the”.

.

TYPES OF SPECIAL USE

1. Preposition Equivalents

Ability to paraphrase a preposition seems to be more usual among -ing participles than -ed ones (see 295. Options in Saying Where, #2). An example of a participle equating to a preposition is accompanying instead of with:

(a)  There will be a letter accompanying the parcel.

ACCOMPANY is a rare verb whose -ed form (+ by) can also replace with:

(b)  The parcel will come accompanied by a letter.

It is only some participles that can replace a preposition. One reason is that many participle meanings are too far away from a preposition meaning to represent one. Another is that usable participles must be made from object-requiring (“transitive”) verbs, so that their object can become the “object” noun that prepositions always need (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #1). Thus, participles from object-refusing verbs, such as SUFFICE, are ruled out.

Participles that commonly act like a preposition include the following:

comprising – of (see 136. Types of Description by Nouns, #12)
concerning – about
considering – in view of (see 296. Tricky Word Contrasts 12, #4)
containing – of (see 160. Uses of “Of”)
covering – over
excepting – except (see 215. Naming Exceptions)
facing – opposite
flanking – alongside, next to
following – after, behind
lacking – without
neighbouring – near
occupying – on
passing – past
piercing – through
preceding – before
regarding – with regard to
spanning – across
supporting – under
surrounding – around
using – with (see 73. Prepositions for Saying How)

.

2. In Compound Adjectives

Participles can easily combine with an adverb, adjective or noun to make a compound adjective. In a surprising number of cases, the compounds are common enough to be considered fixed.

Participles combined with an adverb are likely to be derived from an intransitive (object-less) verb (see 113. Verbs that cannot be Passive). Fixed combinations include deep-thinking, fast-flowing, free-wheeling, hard-working, high-achieving, long-lasting, never-ending, obstinately-persisting, quick-acting, rapidly-deteriorating, slow-growing, slowly-receding and wildly-fluctuating.

By contrast, participles combined with an adjective are likely to be derived from a complement-taking verb (see 220. Features of Complements). Fixed combinations include bitter-tasting, foul-smelling, good-looking, innocent-seeming, positive-sounding and rough-feeling.

Participles combined with a noun are likely to be derived from a transitive (object-needing) verb. Fixed combinations include all-encompassing, awe-inspiring, breath-taking, disease-carrying, fun-loving, heart-stopping, law-breaking, meat-eating, money-grabbing, pleasure-seeking, record-breaking, self-supporting, time-consuming and trouble-causing. Some of these can drop their hyphen so as to become a noun phrase (see 223. Uses of Hyphens, #4C).

Various other examples do not fit any of these patterns, e.g. self-seeking (= seeking things for oneself), highly-regarded, house-trained (= trained for house living), oven-cooked (= cooked in an oven), water-borne (= carried in water), well-known and wind-assisted (= assisted by wind).

.

3. In Multi-Word Prepositions

Prepositions tend to be thought of as single words but can also be multi-word. Prepositions of two, three or even more words can be identified, though the last word will always be a familiar shorter preposition like to. Common examples are along with, according to, in front of and on the basis of.

The word according in according to is a participle. Other multi-word prepositions with one include based on, compared to, depending on, linked to and owing to. For their main uses, see 221. Multi-Word Prepositions, #3.

.

4. In Multi-Word Conjunctions

Conjunction-based participles are typically followed by that. Common examples are assuming that, considering that, given that, granted that, provided that, seeing that and supposing that. A typical use might be:

(c) Given that chemical fertilisers often harm the environment, how else can crop yields be maximised?

The two verbs that sentences with a conjunction generally require are underlined. For an in-depth overview of that conjunctions, see 230. Multi-Word Conjunctions, #1.

.

5. In a Starting Parenthetical Statement

Information that is not the main message of a sentence is often located at the start by means of an -ing participle and following comma. Most participles are usable in this way, but special ones do more. They tend to indicate that the main part of the sentence expresses the writer’s own belief:

(d) Speaking as economists, we have to disagree.

Such participles are usually ones of speaking or thinking. They often lack an object noun, but then need an as phrase (as economists) or adverb, e.g. honestly. Common verbs besides speaking include arguing, reasoning, thinking and writing. Two frequent verbs that need an object are considering and ignoring.

A further feature of special participles in a parenthetical statement at the start of a sentence is that they tend to be more usable there than ordinary participles when the subject of the main verb differs from their own, like inflation in the following:

(e) Speaking honestly, inflation has to be controlled.

For details of why ordinary participles often cannot be used like this, see 75. How to Avoid “Dangling” Participles.

A complete participle-based parenthetical statement often resembles what I call “communication-describing” adverbs like bluntly, which say how their user is speaking (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs #2). Indeed, some of the adverbs that can accompany speaking etc. – e.g. bluntly, clearly, frankly, honestly, plainly – are also usable alone.

Occasionally, the verb in a parenthetical statement like (d) or (e) is an infinitive (with to) rather than participle. For details, see the end of 183. Statements between Commas.

.

6. With GO, COME and TAKE

These verbs can all be followed by an object-less -ing participle expressing a non-domestic leisure activity, such as boating camping, dancing, driving, fishing, hiking, hunting, riding, running, sailing, shopping, sightseeing, skiing, surfing, swimming, touring, travelling, visiting and walking.

GO and COME mean “go/come out to enjoy” (see the introduction to 290. Ways of Using COME). TAKE needs an object noun representing someone co-enjoying the activity under the supervision of the main performer, e.g. take someone swimming (see 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE, #18).

A slight problem with this usage is a few participles that seem eligible for it but are actually not, such as dining, eating, holidaying and praying (see 176. Ways of Using GO, #3).

.

7. Describing a Following Noun

This general use of -ing participles becomes a more special one when the resultant noun phrase is a fixed, often idiomatic one (i.e. a collocation). Examples are:

burning desires
compelling evidence
defining moments
diminishing returns
distinguishing features
glaring omissions
helping hands
mounting debts
overwhelming urges
pressing matters
promising situations
running water
sickening regularity
sitting ducks
soaring profits
striking results
training courses
trying circumstances
winning strategies/smiles

Care is needed, in identifying such phrases, not to confuse them with identical-looking gerund-noun combinations like meeting rooms. For the difference, see 71. Gerund and Participle Uses of “-ing”.

316. Future Verbs without “Will” or “Shall”

.

Verbs can refer to the future in various ways without “will” or “shall”

REPLACING “WILL” OR “SHALL” IN VERBS

The “future tense” (with will or shall) is by no means the only means by which a verb can be understood as referring to the future. English has a variety of alternative verb forms that become necessary in the right circumstances. Here, I wish to clarify those circumstances and to look at the particular alternative to a future tense that is associated with each.

It should be noted that most of the will/shall alternatives to be presented are verb forms. In other words, they are grammatical possibilities, not grammar-replacing vocabulary. As I have suggested elsewhere, English tense meanings cannot normally be expressed just by a neutral verb combined with a suitable non-verbal vocabulary item (cf. 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #1).

.

CIRCUMSTANCES THAT RULE OUT “WILL” / “SHALL” REPLACEMENT

1. Expressing Special Types of Future Meaning

There are some types of future meaning that require a verb either to be combined with a future-suggesting other verb like going to, FACE, BE TO and BE SCHEDULED TO, or to be put into a tense other than a future one.

Going to is perhaps the most obvious alternative to will / shall. Like these words, it combines directly with the base form of a further verb. Its special meanings will not be elaborated here because they are so commonly described in mainstream grammar descriptions (though see 176. Ways of Using “Go”, #6).

Note, however, that whereas will and shall themselves carry the future meaning of a verb, going to transfers it to the verb after. Since the subsequent verb is always in the to (infinitive) form, that form can be taken as the normal grammatical alternative to will or shall in going to combinations. Going to itself can be in any tense. If it is used with will or shall (will be going to…), two separate future ideas will be involved.

Future-referring FACE is similar in meaning to going to (see 314. Words with Complicated Grammar 4, #1). Grammatically, however, it must be followed by an “action” noun object rather than an infinitive verb (e.g. …faces an uphill struggle), this still being where the future meaning is located.

Future-referring BE TO usually reports either an arrangement or a command. Consider this:

(a) All staff are to convene in the main hall at 9.00.

If an arrangement is being reported here, the occurrence of the meeting is a decision made by staff. However, if a command is being reported, the staff are not the ones who have called the meeting – they are just being told (politely) that they are required to attend (see 119. BE before a “to” Verb, #4 and #5). In both cases, it is the infinitive form of the verb after BE TO that replaces will/shall.

It would also be possible to say in (a) are scheduled to convene. This would leave it vague about who had called the meeting.

There are various types of future event or situation whose futurity is typically shown by a verb in a tense other than the future. If the event or situation is a single one and planned by someone other than the speaker, the tense is likely to be present simple or present continuous:

(b) The visitors depart (or are departing) tomorrow.

It is will in such sentences that usually suggests planning by the speaker.

By contrast, futures planned by someone other than the speaker to be repeated at predictable times are more typically indicated with the present simple:

(c) The Sociology lecture takes place this Friday.

For more about planning, see 147. Types of Future Meaning, #5.

.

2. After Future-Pointing Speech/ Thought Verbs

Common speech or thought verbs that sometimes or usually accompany a verb with future reference, similarly to going to, include AIM, ANTICIPATE, ENVISAGE, EXPECT, FORECAST, FORESEE, FORETELL, GUARANTEE, HOPE, IMAGINE, INTEND, PLAN, PLEDGE, PREDICT, PROMISE, PROPHESY, SEE (= predict), SUPPOSE, SWEAR, THREATEN, UNDERTAKE, VOW and WARN.

All of these except possibly AIM and UNDERTAKE can go between a speaker subject X and that…will… (e.g. X promises that s/he will…). AIM and UNDERTAKE only allow an infinitive. For more about UNDERTAKE, see 281.Verbs with Unexpected Grammar 4, #f. For a discussion of AIM versus INTEND, see 114. Tricky Word Contrasts 3, #5.

Many of the verbs that allow that…will… also allow something else. EXPECT, HOPE, PLAN, PLEDGE, PROMISE, SWEAR, THREATEN and VOW can, in the right circumstances, freely accompany either that…will… or a to (infinitive) verb:

(d) The Government hopes that it will (or to) spend more.

The condition for the choice being free is both verbs having the same subject. If they do not (imagine it above replaced by everyone), only that…will… is possible.

ANTICIPATE, ENVISAGE and FORESEE can, when their subject is the same as that of the verb after them, freely accompany either that…will… or just an -ing verb. SEE is similar except that it needs a -self object before -ing, e.g. …sees itself spending more in (d).

Some of the verbs in the main list above allow an ordinary object to be placed directly after them. PROMISE with an object still offers a choice between to… and that…will…; EXPECT and INTEND with an object allow only to….

An object after ANTICIPATE, ENVISAGE, FORESEE, PREDICT and SEE needs a following -ing verb (see 232. Verbs with an Object + “-ing”):

(e) The Government anticipates the country spending more.

Verbs that always require any future-referring verb after them to be used with that…will… include IMAGINE (= suppose), SUPPOSE and WARN.

In all of the examples above, the future-pointing speech verb is in the active voice after its subject, the name of a speaker, and before that…will or equivalent. In an alternative usage, the speech verb is made passive and given the subject of the will verb, placed at the start of the sentence:

(f) Handwriting skills are expected to become unimportant.

As this shows, the will verb become is now in the infinitive form. A similar rearrangement is possible with all of the earlier-listed verbs except HOPE, SEE, SWEAR, UNDERTAKE, VOW and WARN. It always requires the future-referring verb to be an infinitive regardless of its time reference (see 299. Infinitives after a Passive Verb, #2).

.

3. After Likelihood Adjectives

A very similar usage to that illustrated in (f) is with a likelihood adjective instead of an -ed participle between BE and an infinitive – for example likely instead of expected. Besides likely, the possibilities include able, bound, certain, destined, due, guaranteed, poised, prepared, ready and sure. For details of certain used in this way, see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #2).

Similar to these adjectives is about, an indicator that the future action expressed by a following infinitive verb is very imminent (see 269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #6). An even more imminent occurrence can be expressed either by adding just before about, or by replacing both about and its following infinitive with on the + brink / point / verge (+ of -ing), or with close to -ing.

.

4. After Certain Conjunctions

The need to put a future-referring verb after if into a present rather than future tense is routinely covered in elementary English courses and is thus unlikely to be news to readers of this blog. Most such courses also mention a similar possibility after time conjunctions (after, as, as soon as, before, once, when, until):

(g) Problems will be encountered until repairs are complete.

However, these courses do not always mention that will is usable after some of these conjunctions to express a special meaning. A common parenthetical expression in American English is if you will, meaning “If I can express it like this”. Elsewhere after if, the meaning of either “agree” or “insist” is conveyed:

(h) The research will succeed if the participants will (= agree to) cooperate.

(i) Funds will remain low if staff will use (= insist on using) taxis.

After when, a future form commonly indicates a consequence:

(j) Click on the image, when a bell will ring.

This means the bell rings after the image is highlighted – when means “and then”. Compare this with the way the present-tense rings after when (with no preceding comma) gives it its more standard meaning of “after” or “while”. The will use can only end a sentence; the standard one can start or end one (see 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #4).

.

5. After Future-Referring Urging Words

To urge is to put verbal pressure on someone (without commanding them) to behave in a particular way (see 195. Tricky Word Contrasts 7, #1). Words representing some form or another of this idea can be a verb (e.g. URGE) or a noun (e.g. a request) or an adjective (e.g. insistent).

An urged future behaviour can be indicated after a word of this kind by means of that and a future-referring verb in either the present simple tense or the “subjunctive mood”. Subjunctive verbs do not show tense and have only one form – identical to infinitives without to. Their usability after urging words is because they tend to be associated with futures that may never happen:

(k) Doctors recommend that everyone be vaccinated (or is vaccinated).

Common words like recommend include:

VERBS: ADVISE, ASK, BEG, DEMAND, DESIRE, INSIST, PREFER, PROPOSE, RECOMMEND, REQUEST, REQUIRE, SUGGEST, URGE (note that some urging verbs cannot be used like RECOMMEND, especially CALL FOR, ENCOURAGE, NEED, WANT and WISH).

NOUNS: advice, demand, desire, determination, insistence, keenness, preference, proposal, recommendation, request, requirement, suggestion, willingness, wish

ADJECTIVES: adamant, advisable, anxious, crucial, desirable, determined, eager, essential, impatient, important, insistent, keen, necessary, preferable, reluctant, vital, willing.

For more about English subjunctives, see 88. Exotic Grammar Structures 1, #6.

315. Ways of Using SEE

.

The grammar and meanings of SEE are extremely varied

THE COMPLEXITY OF see

Small common verbs tend in any language to have an extensive variety of meanings and uses that makes them difficult to master quickly. Here, the variety of the verb SEE is given detailed consideration, with especial attention paid to usage that is idiomatic and/or very capable of occurring in formal writing. Although this is unlikely to provide instant mastery of the verb (see 202. Some Strategies for Learning English, “Practice Strategies”), it may reduce the time taken.

Of course, dictionaries too provide extensive information about small common verbs. My thinking in doing the same here is that dictionaries’ need to save space can make their explanations and illustrations frustratingly brief and therefore harder to appreciate and remember. In these pages, there is the benefit of not just extra space, but also the potential to link to further explanation elsewhere. Sometimes, there may even be an insight that dictionaries have overlooked.

Other small verbs that are similarly analysed in this blog are HAVE,  MAKE,  GO,  DO,  GIVE,  TAKE and COME.

.

USAGE WITH JUST A SUBJECT

It is not common for SEE to be used in the active voice without an object. Where this is possible, the meaning is usually either the fundamental “perceive with the eyes” or its metaphorical derivative “understand” (see 7. Metaphorical Meanings).

SEE with the first meaning still mainly requires a mention of what the eyes see – the object of the perception. As with most object-indicating verbs in English, this requirement exists even when the nature of the object is obvious from the preceding words or the speech situation. In such cases, the object will normally be a pronoun like them or something:

(a) Searching for micro-organisms, Pasteur eventually saw them.

An absent object after SEE with the basic eye-perception meaning is most likely when the additional meaning of ability is present. In such cases, can is often present too:

(b) I (can) see but I don’t hear.

Even here, however, an object can often be added after SEE, for example things. This suggests that SEE used as in (b) is a kind of verb that I have elsewhere called “object-dropping” (see 8. Object-Dropping Errors). Note that not all noun expressions after it are objects: some, such as a short distance or some way, have an adverb function instead.

SEE meaning “understand” seems slightly more able to be used without an object. As such, it usually seems to involve the further meaning of “accept” or “recognise”. For a special use after as, see 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #4. SEE meaning “understand” without an object is again probably object-dropping rather than truly object-less (“intransitive”).

.

USAGE WITH AN OBJECT

The perception and understanding meanings remain common when SEE has an object. There are various object types, each tending to suggest a particular additional meaning. Common extended meanings are:

1. Appreciate

Here, “understand” combines with “recognise the importance of”. A writer might say they see the problem. A typical conversational use is:

(c) I see what you are saying.

.

2. Refer to/Consult

The extra suggestion here is of transferring attention, usually temporarily, from a primary object of interest to a secondary one, often in order to increase understanding of the former, or credence in it. SEE with this meaning is often in the imperative form (see 128. Imperative Verbs in Formal Writing, #4).

.

3. Imagine/Visualise

Here, the object of SEE is clearly understood not to currently exist. It might be a fantasy, a fear, a desire, or a prediction (like objects of FORESEE). Sometimes, before or after the object, one hears the phrase in my (or similar, e.g. their) mind’s eye.

.

4. Interpret

To interpret is to extract meaning from something perceived, such as a sight, sound, utterance, idea or situation. SEE with this meaning is often accompanied by an adverbial manner expression. Someone might say How do you see it? or X sees it differently. An adverbial as… before …X sees it is a common way of signalling that X’s interpretation follows next (see 293. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 4, #4).

.

5. Subjectively Perceive

If somebody says they see problems in a plan, they leave open the possibility that no problems really exist at all – that the observation is just an opinion. A verb suggesting perception of something that more definitely exists is RECOGNISE.

.

6. Recognise

SEE may acquire this meaning if its object has the (or other particularizing word) instead of a(n) or a “zero” article. Someone looking at a crowd photo, for example, might say they see their brother. There may sometimes be difficulty separating “recognition” from the “appreciate” meaning above (#1).

.

7. Experience

With this meaning, the object of SEE is typically an event, often expressed as an “action” noun (see 131. Uses of “Action” Nouns), e.g.:

(d) The country has seen exceptional growth.

Here, SEE resembles EXPERIENCE in expressing the passive-like meaning of being affected by the action of the object (see 21. Active Verbs with Non-Active Meanings, penultimate section). Literal perception could be involved, but it could also be absent, leaving a more metaphorical use.

.

8. Witness

The object of SEE with this meaning is likely to be an occurrence worth reporting to other people, such as a crime or solar eclipse. There is a similarity to the “experience” meaning above, but more neutrality about whether or not the occurrence actually affected the reporter. More emphasis, in other words, is placed on the perception element.

.

9. Meet

Both accidental and arranged encounters – mostly of the one-to-one kind – can be represented by SEE. The latter also tend to involve the idea of “consult”. Typical statements might be that someone saw a friend or has seen a doctor.

.

10. Other

In everyday usage, SEE with a visual entertainment object like a film means “watch in full”, and in continuous tenses with a human object means “meet regularly to pursue romance”.

.

OTHER USAGE

11. + Object + “as” or “to be”

SEE here means “believe” or “consider” but, unlike with the “subjectively perceive” meaning (#5 above), the belief is carried by the as or to be part rather than the object:

(e) Some language teachers see targeted production practice as (or to be) a waste of time.

Grammatically speaking, an as phrase in such sentences is an “object complement”. As seems freely replaceable by to be, just as it is when introducing an object complement of many (but not all) other belief verbs (see 92. Verbs with an Object + “as”).

.

12. + “that”

An object of SEE is sometimes a statement starting with a conjunction use of that. SEE varies in meaning according to what follows that. With a simple sight or factual observation after that, SEE means “observe”:

(f) The company saw that sales were falling.

This kind of meaning probably exists within the conjunction seeing that, an introducer of an accepted point (see 230. Multi-Word Conjunctions, #1).

By contrast, with information of a less physically visible kind after that, SEE is a “thought” verb meaning “recognise”:

(g) The company sees that more funding is required.

In the right context, both (f) and (g) could be understood as reported speech.

A very different meaning of SEE that… is “ensure”:

(h) Anticipating a long campaign, Caesar saw that his troops had plenty of supplies.

Here, the object of SEE represents a subsequent result of the seeing rather than anything simultaneous. The use is especially likely within instructions (see 128. Imperative verbs in Formal Writing, #3).

.

13. + Object + “-ing”

This is another combination with strikingly different meanings. A statement that economists see prices rising means either that they observe prices to be rising, or that they predict it. Only context can show which is meant.

The “observe” meaning of SEE before an object + -ing closely resembles the “observe” meaning of SEE before that, as in sentence (f). If there is a difference, it is perhaps that that… suggests the observation as a fact worth noting, rather than just a simple occurrence.

For more about the “predict” meaning, see 316. Future Verbs without “Will” or “Shall”, #2.

.

14. + Object + “Bare” Infinitive

SEE is one of various perception verbs whose object can be followed by a base-form verb – actually an infinitive (to verb) without the to (see 148. Infinitive Verbs without “to”, #2). The base form after an object makes a meaning contrast with the -ing form there that is described in #13: whereas -ing suggests the verb’s occurrence is ongoing, base forms present it as completed. For the special use of see … be versus see … being, see 217. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 1, #6.

The above contrast is also possible with the passive form of SEE (with the object as subject). Usually, however, the infinitive then needs to (prices are seen to rise).

.

15. + Indirect Question

Verbs before an indirect question word (if, whether, how, who etc.) are usually “asking”, “explaining” or “knowing” (see 150. Verb Choices with Reported Speech, #2). SEE is commonly an “asking” verb meaning “investigate”:

(i) Use litmus paper to see if the liquid is acidic.

However, sometimes SEE is more “explaining” than “asking”, with the meaning of “observe”. This can happen before any of the question words except if and whether, with how being particularly likely:

(j) See how demand jumps during the summer.

Using how draws attention to something already visible, rather as with NOTE and NOTICE (see 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #5).

.

16. + Object + Directional Preposition

Movement-suggesting prepositions – to, into, from, out of, through etc. – tend, when following an object of SEE, to make SEE mean “escort”. Thus, seeing someone out of a building means accompanying them as far as the exit.

.

17. In Multi-Word Verbs

Some verb-preposition combinations work so closely together that they are best considered single object-requiring “prepositional” verbs (see 44. Troublesome Prepositional Verbs). Common SEE examples include SEE ABOUT… (= deal with), SEE INTO the future (= predict), SEE TO… (= attend to) and SEE THROUGH… (= recognise deception in).

Similar to prepositional verbs are “phrasal” ones, where the verb accompanies a preposition-like adverb (see 139. Phrasal Verbs), sometimes with no object. Common SEE ones are SEE … IN/OUT (= escort inside/outside), SEE … THROUGH (= manage till the end) and SEE … OFF (= successfully resist or help to depart).

.

18. In Other Fixed Expressions

The following are common:

Seeing is believing (see 71. Gerund and Participle Uses of “-ing”, #2)
Let me see = …think about it
See red = become very angry (see 278. Colours, #4).
See the back of = end of
see-through = transparent

302. Verbs with a Partner Infinitive

.

Verbs that can link with a following “to” verb are grammatically quite varied

THE PROBLEM OF PARTNER INFINITIVES

Every English verb allows a limited choice of grammatical possibilities after its active form. The possibilities of an individual verb will sometimes match those of another verb, but often will not. The total number of possibilities across the full range of verbs is at least 12 (see 208. Verbs with an Object + Infinitive). No verb has all of them, and most have far fewer.

A grammatical possibility that is possessed by relatively many active verbs is a directly-following non-purpose to (infinitive) verb. This “partner” verb must be a non-purpose one because purpose infinitives, as in works to survive, are not a verb-dependent possibility – they can follow practically any verb as an adverbial component of the sentence as a whole.

Some verbs that allow a partner infinitive, such as NEED, PROMISE and SEEM, are easy to identify because they are so familiar. However, many others are not so obvious. The problem is that verbs with another verb after them often require it to have a different form than a simple infinitive – and discovering which verbs require which form is not easy. After the active form of ENJOY, for example, partner verbs need -ing (see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1, #b), while ENABLE requires a noun in front of any following infinitive.

It is this problem of identifying verbs allowing a partner infinitive that I wish to consider here. Because there seems to be no single characteristic of these verbs that might ensure their recognition, listing as many of them as possible seems worthwhile. However, to make the reading of such a list less onerous, I also offer a classification of it into some rather interesting subgroups.

.

FEATURES OF PARTNER INFINITIVES

Partner infinitives need to be distinguished from various other post-verb infinitives besides purpose-naming ones. These include (i) infinitives separated from the verb by its object (e.g. enables someone to act); (ii) infinitives that identify or specify the subject of a verb like BE or MEAN (e.g. To see means to believe); (iii) infinitives corresponding to an it subject of their verb (e. g. It helps to exercise); and (iv) infinitives after a passive verb (e.g. were seen to prosper).

Verbs that need a noun (or equivalent) between themselves and a following infinitive are considered in this blog in 208. Verbs with an Object + Infinitive.

Infinitives that identify after BE – #(ii) above – are of numerous kinds (see 119. BE before a “to” Verb). However, they do not comprise every infinitive after BE. Two types that perhaps qualify as partner infinitives of BE express arrangement and destiny in the past (#4 and #10 in the above post), respectively illustrated as follows:

(a) A meeting of finance ministers is to be held in Brussels.

(b) Alexander was to die soon after.

In both cases, going could be added before the infinitive.

In sentences like It helps to exercise – #(iii) above – the infinitive to exercise equates to it, the subject of helps (see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “it”), so is not linked to the main verb in a relevant way. This kind of infinitive use requires the verb just before it to be “intransitive” – usable without an object noun or similar after its active form. Other verbs like helps include hurts, pays and suffices.

The exclusion of infinitives after passive verbs – #(iv) above – is simply because this post is about active verbs that allow a partner infinitive. Moreover, it is noticeable that many passive verbs are derived from active ones that, like ENABLE in # (i) above, need a noun before any following infinitive (see 299. Infinitives after a Passive Verb).

.

TYPES OF PARTNER INFINITIVE

Partner infinitives do not all relate in the same way to the verb before them. The relation depends on the preceding verb’s wider grammatical properties. The main relation types are as follows.

1. Object-like

In the combination promised to act, the infinitive to act names a promised behaviour, just as would an object noun like assistance or payment. The object-like nature of to act is further shown by the fact that its meaning is equally well expressed by its related “action noun” action (see 65. Verbs that Mean “Must” or “Can”, #2).

Common verbs after which an infinitive is object-like are ACCEPT, ARRANGE, ATTEMPT, CEASE, CLAIM, DECLINE (= refuse), DEMAND, DESERVE, DESIRE, DETERMINE (= decide), ELECT (= choose), EXPECT, HAVE, HELP, KNOW, LEARN, MEAN (= intend), NEED, PLAN, PLEDGE, PREPARE, PROFESS, PROMISE, PROPOSE (= plan), SEEK, THREATEN, UNDERTAKE, WANT, WISH (= desire) and WOULD LIKE. See also the special verbs listed in #2 and #5 below.

With some of these verbs, the objects that an infinitive can replace are restricted. Almost the only possible noun object after MEAN (= intend) is business, a figurative way of indicating determined action (see 241. Some Common Figurative Phrases, #2).

Infinitives after ACCEPT are rare. The most common ways of adding a verb after it are with -ing (representing an existing situation) or that… (representing a past, present or future one). Infinitives only represent accepted futures, but English often prefers to express those with AGREE instead of ACCEPT.

KNOW to… is different from KNOW HOW to…, indicating knowledge of a necessary action, rather than the way to perform it (see 309. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 5, #6). LEARN allows the same contrast.

EXCLUDED VERBS

There are some verbs whose absence above may surprise:

STOP and FINISH (unlike CEASE) combine only with purpose infinitives (see 250. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar 1, #2).

REQUIRE is not a recommended substitute for NEED before a partner infinitive (see 292. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar 2, #5).

TRY (unlike ATTEMPT) cannot paraphrase a following infinitive with a noun: a following noun gives it the different meaning of “select as a strategy” instead of “attempt”. As a result, TRY meaning “attempt” is classified under #4 below.

FAIL perhaps fits better under #4 too because its “not do” meaning before an infinitive often becomes “do unsuccessfully” before an object noun (see 314. Words with Complicated Grammar 4, #2).

REFUSE is similar: its pre-infinitive meaning “choose not to comply” becomes “choose not to receive” before a noun.

ALLOW, ENABLE, PERMIT and other cause verbs, plus FORBID, always need a noun before any following infinitive (see 65. Verbs that Mean “Must” or “Can”, #1).

LOOK FORWARD has the preposition to after it, not the to of infinitive verbs. Like all prepositions, this to requires any following verb to have -ing (see 35. Words followed by “to -ing”).

ANTICIPATE and ENVISAGE differ from their synonym EXPECT in requiring -ing instead of to with any directly-following verb, just as they do when there is a noun before a following infinitive (see 242. Words with Unexpected Grammar 3, #d).

GUARANTEE, unlike PLEDGE, PROMISE, UNDERTAKE and VOW, has to be passive for any following verb to need the infinitive form. After its active form, a that construction is the only possibility (see 281. Words with Unexpected Grammar 4, #f).

Other verbs whose partner verb cannot have the infinitive form include AVOID, ENDURE, ENJOY, DENY, KEEP, PROHIBIT, RECOMMEND and REJECT.

.

2. Object-like with an “-ing” Alternative

A few verbs that allow an object-like partner infinitive also allow a partner -ing verb (a “gerund”), usually with changed meaning. Typical is LIKE:

(e) Children like to learn (or learning) through play.

An infinitive after LIKE focuses on its action as a whole, whereas a gerund focuses on the experience of it happening. This is the same contrast that is possible after certain verbs used before an object + infinitive (see 232. Verbs with an Object + “-ing”, #3). Indeed, some of the verbs are the same.

Other verbs that allow the same kind of following to and -ing choice include DISLIKE, HATE and LOVE (but not APPRECIATE. ENJOY, WELCOME, DETEST and LOATH, which all require -ing), plus BEGIN, CEASE, CONTINUE and START.

After FORGET and REMEMBER, to shows a future action, -ing a past one.

After FEAR and PREFER, to indicates a specific-time action, -ing one at any time.

CHOOSE to means “decide” but CHOOSE -ing means “select”.

After NEGLECT and OMIT, to suggests failure, ing choice.

REGRET to expresses pain about saying something. The to verb is usually a speech one like to announce, to inform you or to say (see 238. Using a Verb to Perform its Action). REGRET -ing expresses unhappiness about previous personal behaviour.

.

3. Complement-like

Complements are nouns or adjectives that are shown by a suitable verb to be identifying or describing the meaning of a noun before them (see 220. Features of Complements). The verb SEEM is a typical complement-taking verb

(c) Wealth seems desirable.

Here, desirable is an adjective complement describing the earlier noun wealth.

Partner infinitives can act like a complement of some but not all complement-taking verbs. In (c), for example, desirable could be replaced by to change people. The main verbs like SEEM are APPEAR, BE, GROW, LOOK, PROVE, SEEM and SOUND. As mentioned above, only some infinitives after BE can be its “partner”, namely those expressing an arrangement or destiny in the past, as in sentences (a) and (b).

.

4. Adverb-like

This description applies to partner infinitives whose preceding verb allows neither an object nor a complement, as in this HOPE example:

(d)  Scott hoped to reach the South Pole first.

A partner infinitive of HOPE specifies the hope. Although this can also be done with a noun after for (e.g. hoped for success), the for implies the prepositional verb HOPE FOR, not the intransitive verb HOPE.

Some other verbs that allow an adverb-like partner infinitive similarly allow a preposition + noun instead. In the following list, their preposition is given alongside: AGREE (= cooperatively decide) (on), AIM (at), ASK (for), BEG (for), COME, DARE, DECIDE (on), FAIL (= not do), HAPPEN (= be influenced by chance), HOPE (for), INTEND, OPT (for), LONG (for), PLEAD (for), PRAY, PREPARE (for), REFUSE (= not co-operate), STRUGGLE (for), TRY (= attempt), WAIT (for), WISH (= desire), WISH (for = state a wish to make it happen), VOW and YEARN (for).

For details of COME + infinitive, see 290. Ways of Using COME, #16. For advice on REFUSE, see 279. Grammatical Differences between Citation Verbs, #6.

.

5. In Idiomatic Combinations

Occasionally, an infinitive gives a special meaning to a familiar preceding verb. One such verb is going (see 176. Ways of Using “Go”, #7). Another is SAY:

(f) Doctors say to eat plenty of fruit and vegetables.

Say here reports not just speaking, but speaking of a particular kind: advising (see 187. Advising and Recommending). The infinitive is paraphrasable with that…should…. Elsewhere, SAY might report commanding (= that…must…).

Similarly, THINK to… means not just “think of” (= “conceive”) but also “consider carrying out the conceived action”. The infinitive is paraphrasable with that…might….

LOOK to… can mean either “appear” (cf. #3 above) or “seek”. MAKE to means “initiate -ing without continuing” (see 141. Ways of Using MAKE, #8). REMAIN mostly appears in the fixed expression remains to be seen (= is not established).

299. Infinitives after a Passive Verb

.

Some passive verbs allow a non-purposive “to” verb after them, but many do not

OCCURRENCE OF POST-PASSIVE INFINITIVES

Infinitive verbs (with to) are very often usable directly after the passive form of another verb, like this:

(a) Taxes may be increased TO CONTROL inflation.

(b) Life is known TO HAVE ORIGINATED in the ocean.

These two uses are not the same: the infinitive in (a) expresses a purpose (see 60. Purpose Sentences with “For”), whereas that in (b) does not. Infinitives that express a purpose are the more widely-usable kind directly after a passive verb. Most passive verbs allow one unless they are of the type, like BE PUT and BE SITUATED, that are grammatically incomplete without a directly-following adverb expression like outside or in town (these verbs still allow a following purpose infinitive, but not directly after them).

Non-purpose infinitives, by contrast, are not so freely usable after passive verbs. They tend to be possible only after a small number of passive verb types. It is these verb types and the verbs within each that I wish to consider here, my belief being that awareness of these may increase general facility in using non-purpose infinitives after a passive verb.

It is important here to have a true understanding of passive verbs. The problem is that adding -ed (or irregular equivalent) to the base form of a verb, either alone or combined with BE, does not always create the participle form that characterises passive verbs: it is also a way of making adjectives.

Common adjectives made in this way include advanced, confused, inclined, interested, married, pleased and satisfied. The ways they differ from identically-spelt participles are considered in depth in this blog in 245. Adjectives with a Participle Ending. Passive-like adjectives of this kind are excluded from the following discussion. For the ways they combine with infinitives, see 83. Adjectives before a “to” Verb.

.

TYPES OF POST-PASSIVE INFINITIVE

1. Still Usable when the Passive Verb is Active

An example of this type is:

(c) Passengers are advised to wear a seatbelt.

If the passive are advised here is used in its active form (e.g. We advise…), passengers must be its object, and the infinitive to wear… remains possible, positioned after passengers.

Not all passive verbs before an infinitive can be changed into the active voice in this way. For example, sentence (c) beginning Passengers are said to… could not become *We say passengers to…. The active voice of the verb SAY generally disallows a following object + infinitive.

Verbs that can, like ADVISE, go before an infinitive regardless of whether they are active or passive generally correspond to the ones listed in this blog in 208. Verbs with an Object + Infinitive. However, the correspondence is not exact. There are 12 meaning categories listed in that post. The verbs in all except one are mostly similar to ADVISE. Examples are:

“commanding” (e.g. ORDER, INSTRUCT, TELL)
“requesting” (e.g. ASK and INVITE but not WOULD LIKE)
“persuading” (e.g. CONVINCE, URGE)
“needing” (e.g. COUNT ON, TRUST)
“anticipating” (e.g. EXPECT and TIP, but not FOR verbs like WAIT FOR)
“causing” (e.g. ALLOW, ENABLE, INDUCE)
“recruiting” (e.g. APPOINT, CHOOSE, NAME)
“believing” (e.g. BELIEVE, CONSIDER, SUGGEST: see #2 below)
“establishing” (e.g. DECLARE, IMPLY, PAINT but not DEFINE, IDENTIFY)
“teaching” (e.g. COACH, HELP)
“sensing” (e.g. FEEL, OBSERVE, SEE but not WATCH, LISTEN TO)

The one meaning category among the 12 that seems less able to be expressed in the passive voice before an infinitive is “desiring” (e.g. DESIRE, PREFER). For example, is preferred to go… seems unlikely.

Most verb types outside those listed above need any verb after their object to be in a form other than the infinitive. For example, KEEP requires a verb with -ing instead (see 232. Verbs with an Object + “-ing”). After the passive of such verbs, the same alternative to an infinitive is often necessary, but with some exceptions, as indicated below.

There are even some verbs in the above meaning categories that cannot have an infinitive after either their active or passive form, for example the command verbs DECREE and DEMAND, and the request verb PRAY. The anticipation verbs ANTICIPATE, FORECAST, and FORESEE are unusual in that their passive form requires any following verb to be an infinitive (X was anticipated to fall), but their active requires it to have -ing or follow that (…anticipated X falling).

.

2. Within an Indirect Statement

Consider this:

(d) People say (that) films influence behaviour.

Because many writers dislike having this very general use of people as the subject of a verb, there is a tendency to avoid it by making the verb passive. However, the normal way of doing so – making the verb’s object into its subject – is also unattractive when the object starts with that since most English users have a general reluctance to give verbs a long subject of the kind typified by that statements.

A common solution to this problem is to start with it (It is said that…: see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “it”). However, many speech and thought verbs like SAY offer the alternative of starting with the subject of the that statement, in this case films:

(e) Films are said to influence behaviour.

It will be seen that starting in this way requires the verb of the indirect statement to become an infinitive after the passive are said. Mixing up that and to can be a problem for some inexperienced English users (see 231. Confusions of Similar Structures 3, #6).

These two different ways of linking an indirect statement with a passive verb prompt the question of when each might be preferable. I think that, as with most seemingly synonymous structures, a difference does exist. Having the subject of the indirect statement at the start of the sentence instead of it, as in (e), commonly marks it as the less informative part of that statement, thus making the other part (influence behaviour) the focus of the sentence. For a fuller discussion of word order determining informational prominence, see 156. Mentioning What the Reader Knows Already.

English speech and thought verbs are very numerous (see 150. Verb Choices with Reported Speech). However, not all of them are usable like SAY in (e). Usability seems to require a parallel ability to introduce indirect speech with that. There are plenty of speech and thought verbs – CRITICISE, DEFINE and PRAISE, for example – that lack this ability (see 279. Grammatical Differences between Citation Verbs), and none of them seem able when passive be followed by an infinitive.

Available that verbs include ACKNOWLEDGE, *AGREE, *ARGUE, ASSERT, ASSUME, BELIEVE, *CLAIM, CONSIDER, EXPECT, FEEL, GUARANTEE, HOLD, IMPLY, *INDICATE, KNOW, *NOTE, OBSERVE, PREDICT, *SAY, SEE, *SPECULATE, *STATE, *SUGGEST, SUPPOSE, SUSPECT, THINK and UNDERSTAND. For an example of ARGUE in the passive before an infinitive see 312. Grammar Command Test 3, #f.

Note that the tendency of passive + infinitive reporting verbs to be alternatively usable with that does not mean that all that-allowing verbs have both uses. Two common exceptions are EXPLAIN and MENTION. It may be significant that the verbs listed above tend to be opinion-implying (see 107. The Language of Opinions).

Many verbs listed above are also usable in the active voice with a following object + infinitive, so that they additionally belong to the first category described above (exceptions are marked *). However, the infinitives that they can accompany when active will usually, it seems, be just to be or to have.

.

3. Omissible or Replaceable by “As”

Sometimes, to be after a passive verb can be dropped or replaced by as. Consider this:

(f) A nod is … a sign of consent.

Different passive verbs have different possibilities. After judged in (f), the possible continuation is either to be a sign or simply a sign (see 192. When BE can be Omitted, #2). After acknowledged, the continuation is either to be a sign or as a sign. And after argued, only to be a sign is possible.

Common verbs in each of these categories are as follows:

VERBS LIKE JUDGED: considered (= believed), declared, found, thought. In addition, appointed, elected, named (= nominated) and nominated allow a following to be not just to be added or dropped, but also to be replaced by as (see 236. Tricky Word Contrasts 9, #2). Assumed and believed sometimes drop to be before an adjective (e.g. is believed dead).

VERBS LIKE ACKNOWLEDGED: chosen, depicted, established, estimated, evaluated, identified, intended, perceived, pictured, portrayed, rated, recognised, regarded, seen, suggested, trained, understood, visualised.

VERBS LIKE ARGUED: asserted, claimed, demonstrated (= proved), expected, felt, found, held, imagined (= believed), known (= proven), maintained (= argued), predicted, said, shown, suggested (= implied), suspected, taken (= assumed), understood (= believed).

A seeming complication in this area is the existence of verbs whose passive form allows a following as but not to be. Common ones are categorised, defined, described, criticised, highlighted, imagined (= pictured), known (= perceived), named (= identified), suggested (= proposed), taken (= used), thought of, treated, understood (= interpreted) and viewed (see 92. Verbs with an Object + “as”). However, few of these are that-allowing, so their inability to be followed by any kind of infinitive is not really surprising.

A more real complication is that some verbs allow either as or to be after their passive form, but with different meanings. They include:

Considered: see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #3
Imagined + as = visualised; + to be = believed
Known: see 92. Verbs with an Object + “As”, examples #h and #i
Suggested + as = proposed; + to be = implied
Taken: see 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE, #17
Understood + as = interpreted; + to be = believed

.

4. Following “Supposed”

The meaning of BE SUPPOSED can be confusing (see 81. Tricky Word Contrasts 2, #3). A verb of French origin (see 135. French Influences on English Vocabulary), it only sometimes has the “believed” meaning of its French counterpart. It could be understood in this way if, for example, supposed replaced said in sentence (e) above. When meaning “be believed”, BE SUPPOSED fits into both the first of the categories described above (usable in the active voice with an object + infinitive) and the second (facilitating an indirect statement).

However, BE SUPPOSED TO can also mean “have the non-fulfilled function of…”. If used, for example, in sentence (f), it could indicate that a nod does not always function as a sign of consent. What is special about BE SUPPOSED with this use is that it fits into none of the above categories. It is not usable in the active voice (this being reserved exclusively for the “believed” meaning); it cannot facilitate indirect speech because it is not a speech or thought verb; and it cannot be used with as instead of to.

295. Options in Saying Where

.

Indicating the location of something involves much more than just prepositions

THE VARIABILITY OF LOCATION DESCRIPTIONS

The obvious means of describing a location, prepositions, is by no means the only one. Like most types of writing, location descriptions use a wide variety of language, both elementary and more advanced, some of which can on occasion give rise to language errors.

This post presents some of the more sophisticated aspects of location descriptions, and also examines elementary and more advanced aspects that can cause errors. In this respect, it resembles Guinlist posts like 82. Common Errors in Making Comparisons and 118. Problems with Conditional “if”.

.

NON-PREPOSITIONAL FEATURES OF LOCATION DESCRIPTIONS

1. Verbs

Some verbs describe a location alongside a preposition, while others do so without one. The most basic verb of the former kind is, of course, BE. The more colourful alternatives (able to express either an action or a state) include BE FOUND, BE PLACED, BE LOCATED, BE SITUATED, BE POSITIONED, BE ARRANGED, BE SCATTERED, COME, GO, GROW, LIE, NESTLE, PASS, REST, RUN, SIT, STAND and STRETCH.

Some states are temporary, some permanent. People and animals, for example, tend to be anywhere temporarily, while buildings and plants are typically more permanent. The underlined verbs above mostly show permanent locations; the others can show either type. Additional observations are:

BE FOUND typically accompanies the name of a broad region rather than exact location:

(a) Giraffes are found in Africa.

BE PLACED implies recent deliberate placement (see the discussion of sentence #f in 66. Types of Passive Verb Meaning).

BE POSITIONED implies location within a frame or structure, such as an actual or diagrammatic house:

(b) The bathroom is positioned directly above the kitchen.

COME accompanies a position in a sequence (see 290. Ways of Using COME, #6).

BE ARRANGED and BE SCATTERED help to show multiple locations, the former indicating purposeful positioning, the latter randomness:

(c) The tents were arranged/scattered around a kitchen area.

GO, PASS, RUN and STRETCH help show the locations of long, thin structures, such as roads. Typical prepositions after them are across, along and between.

GROW describes plant locations.

LIE (see 97. Verb Form Confusions) is useful for giving the location of something more horizontal than vertical, such as a sleeping animal or a field.

REST often helps show a location under or between something larger, such as a hill. NESTLE is a more poetic verb with a similar meaning.

STAND is, not surprisingly, the opposite of LIE, typically helping to locate taller objects and creatures.

The other kind of location verb – not requiring a preposition – is well illustrated by one of the uses of FACE (see 314. Words with Complicated Grammar 4, #1):

(d) The cinema faces (= is opposite) the hotel.

Other examples, with their implied preposition, are ADJOIN (next to), COVER (over), CROSS (across), ENCIRCLE (round), FILL (inside), FLANK (alongside), FOLLOW (alongside), INHABIT (in), NEIGHBOUR (near), OCCUPY (on), SEPARATE (between), SPAN (over + across), and TOUCH (against).

Verbs whose meaning implies a preposition are not only found in location descriptions. For some examples of other usage, see 205. Paraphrasing Prepositions with Words of Other Kinds.

.

2. Participles

Some verbs whose meaning includes that of a preposition can in their -ing (participle) form exactly replace that preposition. In the following example, facing means “opposite”:

(e) The cinema facing the hotel was constructed in the 1930s.

A special feature of preposition-like participles is that they must often directly follow a noun – cinema in (e). Otherwise the corresponding preposition is necessary instead. For example, if facing the hotel followed constructed above, it would probably become opposite the hotel. The reason is that participles used like a preposition do not lose their need for a noun to describe. 

Participles replacing a preposition must also be made from a verb that needs or allows an object noun (see 8. Object-Dropping Errors). This is because prepositions normally have a partner noun that the participle must accommodate (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #1).

Other participle equivalents of location prepositions include:

across – spanning / crossing
around – surrounding / encircling
beside – flanking
between – separating / intervening
in front of – fronting
into – accessing
near – neighbouring
of – comprising
on – occupying / covering
through – dividing / separating
up – ascending / climbing
with – accompanying

One possible benefit of participles compared to prepositions is greater descriptive precision. For example, around is vague about the completeness of encirclement whereas encircling is not. For an occasional benefit of preferring a preposition, see 75. How to Avoid “Dangling” Participles, #3.

.

3. Adverbs

One group of location adverbs is the familiar kind that amplify the meaning of a verb or entire sentence – words like here, everywhere, nearby, upstairs, separately and randomly, plus preposition-resembling ones like above, below, inside and outside, and preposition phrases like across the street. The next section presents a special use of all these.

In addition, there are adverbs that amplify the meaning of a preposition after them, such as well:

(f) The farm is well off the road.

Here, well indicates that the distance off the road is substantial but not huge. A smaller distance might be indicated with just, a larger one with way or far (see 256. Unusual Meanings of Familiar Words, #2).

There are surprisingly many adverbs that can precede a preposition in this way. Directly in sentence (b) above is another example. Not all such uses are location-describing, but plenty are. Other common ones are close, deep, high, immediately, much and right (see 262. Adverbs that Describe a Preposition).

.

4. “There” Sentences

Without previous mention of something whose location is being named, a sentence is likely to begin with there (see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences, #7):

(g) There is a hotel located behind the tower block.

Using a before hotel here instead of the indicates previous non-mention. The next word is a participle (located without is), but could also be which (followed by is located), or just a preposition (behind).

Location phrases can also precede there (Behind the hotel there is…), usually enabling there to be omitted (see 307. Word Order Variations, #3).

.

SOURCES OF ERROR

The following are notable:

5. Cultural Perspectives

The meanings of location-describing prepositions sometimes reflect a culture-specific way of seeing the world. For example, English speakers say they travel on a bus, not in one, probably because they view buses as being primarily underneath travellers (rather like horses). Many other cultures, however, think of buses as containers, and reflect that in using a preposition more like in than on. For more on transport prepositions, see 73. Prepositions for Saying How.

Differing cultural perspectives also seem to be associated with structural position nouns like top, bottom, middle, side, end and corner. English speakers view the narrower internal side of corners in this context as containers rather than specific points, so typically indicate the occupancy of one with in, not at. Outside of structures, though, the wider side of a corner is often referred to with at (exactly) or on (more vaguely).

The middle is another structural position noun that typically follows in, again suggesting that English speakers are thinking of an area rather than a point. With top, bottom, end and side, however, the typical position indicator is at. If on is used instead, the idea of attachment is also present.

.

6. “Near” and “Far”

These words – also considered respectively in 254. Tricky Word Contrasts 10 (#4) and 175. Tricky Word Contrasts 6 (#3) – are easy to confuse with nearby and far away.

Near can be a verb (= “become close to a destination”, as in neared the city), preposition (were near the city), adverb (came/was near), or adjective (a near success). Nearby, on the other hand, can only be either an adverb (worked nearby) or an adjective (a nearby station; was nearby). The main problem with near and nearby is thus distinguishing their adverb and adjective uses.

As an adverb, near indicates closeness of something moving, nearby closeness of something static. Consequently, near typically accompanies movement verbs like COME, while nearby needs location ones like LIVE or STAND. This distinction also stands when near and nearby are adjectives after BE. Thus, saying a train is near suggests its approach, whereas saying it is nearby does not.

Things are different, though, with adjective usage before a noun. While nearby still implies just a non-moving position, near does not usually describe a position at all. Instead, near only makes combinations like a near success and a near miss, suggesting non-achievement, or ones like the near future, showing closeness in time rather than space. To express “coming near” before a noun, a different word – typically approaching – is necessary.

By contrast, the preposition near can imply either movement or non-movement, compensating for the inability of nearby to be a preposition. 

Far is similarly usable as either an adverb or adjective. As an adverb, it can accompany a motion verb, like GO or TRAVEL, or a position one, like BE SITUATED. However, in the latter case far needs a following word like away, off or above, or preposition phrase like to the right. Using position-describing far without suitable following wording (e.g. *The hills are far) is a fairly common error.

As an adjective, far usually means “further away” before its noun (e.g. the far side), and “distant” after it with a link verb like BE in between. The “distant” use must precede either away (or similar) or to + motion verb, e.g. …seems far to go. 

To say “distant” before a noun, faraway, far-off or distant are needed. Note the contrast between the adverb far away and the adjective faraway (see 26. One Word or Two?).

.

7. Prepositions with Compass Words

Compass words like north and west may be nouns, adjectives or adverbs. As nouns (usually after the), they often follow a preposition of static location, commonly in or to (see 151. Ways of Using Compass Words). Here, to means “just outside the (compass adjective) boundary”:

(h) Sudan lies to the south (of Egypt).

Unlike in the south, this means Sudan is outside Egypt, but touching its southern border. To remove the idea of “touching Egypt” (for somewhere further south than Sudan, e.g. Uganda), it is necessary to replace to the south of with just south of (= “somewhere beyond the southern boundary of”). There would be no the because this use of south is an adverb, not a noun.

One other notable preposition is towards, meaning “almost in the (compass word) part of the same area”. In Egypt, for example, Luxor is located towards the south.

.

8. Verbs after “there” + BE

As mentioned above, locations after there +VERB are often expressed with a participle or which (+ ordinary verb). Common errors are which + participle and an ordinary verb without which (see 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences, # 7).

291. Subtleties of “-ed”

.

The “-ed” ending is more complicated than most English coursebooks indicate

COMPLEXITY OF ENGLISH GRAMMATICAL ENDINGS

English grammatical endings are not as easy to master as they seem. Most have usage rules that are more complicated and more extensive than coursebooks typically suggest. Complications of the -s and -ing endings are considered elsewhere in this blog in 12. Singular and Plural Verb Choices and 71. Gerund and Participle Uses of “-ing”.

The -ed ending seems to be especially affected by complexity and variety. Part of the reason, of course, is that, like -s and -ing, it is actually two different regular endings: of the past simple verb tense and of the “past” participle verb form – two verb uses that, in many irregular verbs, are not both spelt the same.

Much of what I have to say here can also be found in other Guinlist posts, though often in more or less detail. As with these other mentions, the focus is not so much on the past simple tense use as on the participle and a few other surprising uses. Limited consideration of the past simple tense is available in 76. Tenses of Citation Verbs,  171. Aspects of the Past Perfect tense and 282. Features of History Writing.

..

“-ED” SUBTLETIES

1. Pronunciation

In all of its uses, -ed varies in its pronunciation according to which sound is directly before it. Like the -s ending, it may be pronounced in one of three different ways: /d/, /t/ or /ɪd/. Many coursebooks mention these, but do not always go into detail about the rules for choosing between them, as these are fairly complicated. For a full description in these pages, see 243. Pronunciation Secrets, #1.

Even less often mentioned is the fact that -ed very occasionally changes its pronunciation in the same word depending on how that word is being used (see #6 below).

.

2. Active / Passive Alternation

This feature of -ed participles is observable at elementary levels. The meaning is active directly after HAVE (in the “present perfect” and “past perfect” tenses, and in participles and gerunds made with having), but passive directly after BE.

Yet this difference is rarely given the explicit mention that it deserves. Worse, the very name that -ed participles are most commonly given – “past participles” – is misleading because it applies exclusively to the active voice uses, without recognising that passive participles often refer to the present or future rather than the past (see 52. Participles Placed Just after their Noun).

In fact, passive -ed participles are probably more widespread than past ones. This is because -ed is very often used without any preceding “auxiliary” verb at all, and in that situation is nearly always passive:

(a) An “-ed” participle used by itself has passive meaning.

In usage like this, the only way in which -ed participles can be thought of as “past” is in the sense that their action happens before that of the main verb in their sentence (has above).

.

3. Exceptional Active Meanings

In a very few instances, an -ed participle by itself or after BE has active rather than passive meaning. This happens with certain verbs of the kind that grammarians call “intransitive”. With most verbs of this kind, neither the form of the passive (-ed alone or after BE) nor its meaning is possible (see 113. Verbs that cannot be Passive). With the verbs in question, however, the form but not the meaning of the passive, is possible. Consider the following example from 207. Exotic Grammar Structures 4, #1:

(b) When the police arrived, the money was gone.

This pseudo-passive form of GO is very close in meaning to the active had gone. The difference between them is perhaps that was focuses attention more on the final state, had more on the action causing it. Other intransitive verbs that allow a similar usage include COME, ARRIVE, DEPART, DISAPPEAR, FALL and RISE. Their use often has a poetic feel (…were fallen in battle; …are departed from this life).

The passive-like participle of GO normally has to follow BE, as does that of COME. The others, however, are found by themselves in a few fairly fixed phrases like our departed friends, the train arrived at platform 2 and the disappeared.

.

4. Use after “Having Been”

The typical passive meaning of lone -ed participles, combined with their reference to an earlier time than that of the main verb, invites the question of how they differ from -ed participles after having been. A definite difference is that only lone -ed participles are able (sometimes) to go before their partner noun, as in a suggested alternative (see “Uses of Having Participles” in 267. Participles and Gerunds with “Having”).

However, placement after their noun in a longer “participle clause” is possible with both participle types, albeit with different meanings. In sentence (a), for example, used is replaceable by having been used. The difference is that lone -ed participles after a noun are like relative clauses (sentence constituents beginning with who, which, that etc.), while having been -ed participles are more like when… clauses. Reflecting this difference, clauses with a lone -ed participle may or may not be surrounded by commas, while those with having been -ed usually need them.

Another situation where both participle types are possible but slightly different is in sentence-starting clauses:

(c) Motivated by price cuts, consumers will purchase more.

(d) With the average speed identified, an arrival time can be calculated.

Motivated and identified here express states without indicating when they began. With is necessary in (d) because the subject of the participle (speed) is different from the subject of the main verb can be calculated.

By contrast, having been added before these participles would more definitely mark the state as a recently-initiated one. In sentences like (d), its use would usually be without a starting with (see 75. How to Avoid “Dangling” Participles, #4).

.

5. Inability to Act like Nouns

An occasional error with -ed participles is using them where a noun should be:

(e) *Confined to home affected people’s mental health.

The main verb here is affected, and confined to home is being used as its multi-word subject. The problem is that such subjects usually need a single noun or equivalent within them that determines whether the verb is singular or plural, and this is absent here.

Confined cannot be this word because it is a verb (although participles with -ing can be noun-like – see 70. Gerunds – -ed ones cannot). The other main word, home, is a noun, but it cannot be the key noun because it directly follows a preposition (to) – a situation that hardly ever qualifies a noun to be the central part of a verb’s subject (see 84. Seven Things to Know about Prepositions, #5).

One way to correct (e) is to convert CONFINE into a gerund. This cannot be done simply by changing -ed into -ing because lone -ing verbs always have active meaning rather than the typical passive meaning of lone -ed participles. To overcome this, you have to add -ing to the verb BE inserted before the -ed participle – being confined above.

An alternative correction is to change confined into a true noun, i.e. (the) confinement (see 131. Uses of “Action” Nouns, #5). It would not be usable after a because it is uncountable.

.

6. Formation of Verb-Derived Adjectives

English has numerous adjectives that end with -ed, common examples being advanced, concerned, interested, married, pointed, related, relieved and satisfied. Since most words of this kind could also be participles, a key question is how their adjective use can be recognised.

There are actually a variety of recognition criteria (see 245. Adjectives with a Participle Ending). Three are particularly worth a mention here. Firstly, dictionaries show -ed adjectives by listing them separately from their related verbs. Secondly, the meaning of -ed adjectives often differs more greatly from that of their related verb than participle meanings do. For example, the participle advanced is close to the verb ADVANCE in meaning “moved forward” or “proposed”, whereas the adjective means “sophisticated”. Thirdly, -ed in a few adjectives is pronounced differently from its participle equivalent: with /ɪd/ regardless of the sound before. This is the case, for example, with learned (participle ending = /d/), dogged (participle ending = /d/) and blessed (participle ending = /t/).

.

7. Formation of Noun-Derived Adjectives

Although words with -ed tend to be verb-derived, some like bearded, bejewelled, bespectacled, cloistered, disadvantaged, hooded, horned, skilled and timbered are made from a noun. They are typically adjectives in which -ed means “having”. Bearded, for example, means “having a beard”.

Many adjectives of this kind are made with a noun that is linked by a hyphen to an adjective before it, as in green-coloured (see 278. Colours, #1 and 223. Uses of Hyphens, #4A). Such combinations are very often property-describing, e.g. double-edged, rough-textured, open-ended and smooth-surfaced (see “Property-Naming with BE” in 163. Ways of Naming Properties). Others name a more everyday characteristic, e.g. short-sighted, long-haired, red-faced, high-walled and soft-cushioned.

Note that number-noun combinations, such as a six-page essay or a two-hour meeting, tend not to have -ed. This may be because they are actually nouns rather than adjectives (see 136. Types of Description by Nouns, #4). There are exceptions, however, such as combinations with -sided (a one-sided argument, a three-sided figure etc.) or with the name of a body part (-footed, -eyed, -legged, -handed etc.).

Note also that adjective-noun combinations with -ed should be distinguished from noun-verb ones like hand-operated, rear-mounted, star-shaped and emotion-packed (see the end of 106. Word-like Suffixes).

290. Ways of Using COME

.

The uses of COME extend quite far beyond the well-known ones

THE COMPLEXITY OF come

Small common verbs tend in any language to have an extensive variety of meanings and uses that makes them difficult to master quickly. Here, the variety of the verb COME is given detailed consideration, with especial attention paid to usage that is idiomatic and/or very capable of occurring in formal writing. Although this is unlikely to provide instant mastery of the verb (see 202. Some Strategies for Learning English, “Practice Strategies”), it may reduce the time taken.

Of course, dictionaries too provide extensive information about small common verbs. My thinking in doing the same here is that dictionaries’ need to save space can make their explanations and illustrations frustratingly brief and therefore harder to appreciate and remember. In these pages, there is the benefit of not just extra space, but also the potential to link to further explanation elsewhere. Sometimes, there may even be an insight that dictionaries have overlooked.

Other small verbs that are similarly analysed in this blog are HAVE,  MAKE,  GO, DO,  GIVE and TAKE.

.

THE SIMPLE INTRANSITIVE USE

Intransitive verbs cannot be passive and are used in the active form without an object (see 113. Verbs that cannot be Passive). Although COME occasionally breaks these expectations (see below), it is a very typical intransitive verb. Its use is “simple” when there are no accompanying words at all apart from its subject.

The simple use of COME very often expresses its familiar fundamental meaning of movement to somewhere that is being focussed on. The mover is sometimes a concrete one, such as a person, animal or moving object, and sometimes more abstract, often a moment in time (Summer came).

The place that is being focussed on is likely in conversation to be that of the person using COME. For example, if a person X said Y came, they would typically mean that Y moved to where X was. An alternative place of focus is one that has just been described. Movement towards a place of focus is, of course, the opposite of what GO means, and mirrors that of BRING compared to TAKE (see 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE, #14).

Another very elementary meaning that the simple use of COME often expresses is very like that of GO + activity (go for a walk, go visiting etc: see 176. Ways of Using GO, #3). COME is likely to be preferred when its subject is accompanying a focus person in the activity, e.g. Y will come (visiting) (with us). Here, COME indicates not movement towards, but movement with the focus.

A few other meanings of the simple intransitive use of COME are possible.

1. Visit

In this familiar use, the subject of COME is a visitor to a place of focus.

.

2. Attend

To attend is to participate in a formal gathering. COME has this meaning when its subject is human and the gathering is the place of focus.

.

3. Happen (Be Seen/Heard)

With this meaning, COME often follows there:

(a) There came an almighty crash.

.

4. Approach

To approach is to move towards a focus point without actually arriving. COME with this meaning is usually in a continuous tense (…are coming) or combined with an adverb like close or near.

The participle coming is often a synonym of future-referring next (the coming Sunday). Following is its equivalent in past-time descriptions (see 282. Features of History Writing, #9), but means “after next” in the present.

.

USE WITH A PREPOSITION

Various meanings result from combining COME with particular following prepositions.

5. Reach

To reach somewhere is to complete a journey to it (see 250. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar, #1). The journey may be a real one across geographical space or metaphorical across something else. COME can express either meaning in combination with to:

(b) Next day, the group came to Baghdad.

(c) The flood came up to the gardens.

The destinations here (Baghdad, the gardens) are the writer or somewhere that a description is focussing on. GO would be preferred if the focus were different.

Even more metaphorical is the idea of something immovable “reaching” somewhere, for example the lawn instead of the floodwater in (c). COME used like this conveys extensiveness rather than movement.

Another metaphorical use of both REACH and COME TO is with “action” nouns to express completion of the action, as in come to a conclusion (see 173. “Do Research” or “Make Research”?, #4).

In professional contexts, COME meaning “reach” often introduces a new stage of an exposition. It typically follows I or we, and precedes to + the stage name (Now we come to…: see 186. Language in Oral Presentations, #2).

.

6. Be Positioned

A proverb illustrating this more static meaning is:

(d) Pride comes before a fall.

The position here is in time, but can also be in a spatial sequence (see 295. Options in Saying Where, #1). It must be already-occupied; otherwise GO seems more likely. For example, a not-yet-inserted piece of a jigsaw puzzle is usually said to go rather than come somewhere.

.

7. Originate

This familiar meaning of course involves from. There is the stative characteristic-describing use in statements like …comes from Seoul and the dynamic movement one, as in …has come from afar.

.

8. Be Available

Used with in, COME can indicate aspects of merchandise on sale. Cars may come in different colours, clothes in various sizes, and gifts in a pretty box.

.

9. Suffer

COME with this meaning needs to and a noun naming specific eventual harm, such as grief, a bad/sad end and no harm. Harm that is incidental rather than eventual is more likely to be the object of SUFFER or TAKE (see 264. Variations in the Use of TAKE, #9).

.

10. Be Included

COME is usable before within and a set of definitions, laws, rules, etc:

(e) Holiday entitlements come within the Workers’ Rights Legislation.

There is also a use with into or under + previously-established category:

(f) Fish come into the category of vertebrates.

After under, the category of is optional (see 162. Writing about Classifications, final section).

OTHER USES

11. Before a Noun

COME resembles GO in being able to directly precede distance expressions, e.g. 10km, a short distance, and phrases containing the word way (see 176. Ways of Using GO, #1). Common way phrases are a long way, the wrong way and a new way. Saying that something comes the way of someone means they experience it by chance:

(g) Many blessings come the way of those who are humble.

.

12. Within Multi-Word Verbs

Some verb-preposition combinations work so closely together that they are best considered single object-requiring “prepositional” verbs (see 44. Troublesome Prepositional Verbs). Common COME examples include COME ACROSS… (= accidentally find), COME BY… (= acquire), COME INTO… (= inherit), COME THROUGH… (= survive), COME TO… (= total) and COME UPON… (= accidentally encounter).

Similar to prepositional verbs are “phrasal” ones, where the verb accompanies a preposition-like adverb (see 139. Phrasal Verbs), sometimes with no object. After COME, objects are rare. Combinations include COME ALONG (= accompany on a trip), COME AROUND (= regain consciousness or yield to persuasion), COME AWAY (= break off from a larger mass), COME BACK (= return), COME OFF (= succeed), COME OVER (+ adverb = be perceived) and COME TO (= regain consciousness).

There are also some common 3-word “phrasal-prepositional” verbs: COME IN FOR (+ punishment = undergo), COME OUT WITH (= utter), COME UP AGAINST (+ opponent or problem = encounter) and COME UP WITH (= think of).

.

13. In the Passive Voice

Despite its intransitive nature, COME has a surprising passive-like use that is also found with a small number of other intransitive verbs (see 207. Exotic Grammar Structures 4, #1):

(h) The hour is come when the challenge must be met.

Is come here has the typical form of passive verbs (BE + “past” participle), yet it is not a true passive because its meaning does not differ in the same way from its active equivalent (comes) as most normal passives do (see 21. Active Verbs with Non-Active Meanings). The meaning of BE COME is more like that of the perfect active form HAVE COME.

Both BE COME and HAVE COME express a state. The difference is perhaps that the former focuses attention more on the final state, the latter on the action causing it. There is also a more poetic feel to BE COME.

.

14. With a Complement

Sometimes, a subject noun before COME is matched or described by another noun, or an adjective, directly after it:

(i) Use good quality glue or the fixing will come loose.

Here, the adjective loose describes the subject noun the fixing.

Only a few words can be a complement of COME. Sequence adjectives (first, second, third etc.), plus clean, loose, right, true and the idiomatic noun a cropper (= harmed) express an end state, making come similar to, and replaceable by, become. The expression comes cheap, however, indicates a permanent state.

.

15. Before a Participle

One use under this heading is the already-mentioned COME -ing expressing accompaniment in a leisure activity (e.g. come sightseeing). In another, COME means “be available” (#7). An -ing or ed participle replaces a following in phrase (comes smelling of…, comes wrapped in…).

Sometimes, COME has its basic “arrive” meaning and -ing indicates simultaneous behaviour of the arriving person or thing. A new product, for example, might come bursting onto the market and a visitor might come wearing formal clothing.

.

16. Before a “to” Verb

A to verb (infinitive) does not always express a purpose after COME. A common alternative, sometimes leading to a double meaning, is a desirable mental state developed over time. Some infinitives seem particularly likely to have this meaning, common ones including accept, agree, appreciate, associate, enjoy, feel, know, question, realise, recognise, see, think and understand.

.

17. In the Subjunctive Mood

“Subjunctive” is a particular set of verb forms, most the same as the infinitive, that indicate something indefinite. Subjunctive COME usually precedes its subject, this typically being a time noun (e.g. come Sunday), through which the meaning of when is implied (when Sunday comes).

Sometimes, subjunctive come precedes two nouns separated by or in an adverb-like statement of unimportance:

(j) Come rain or shine, a harvest has to be gathered.

This fixed expression means “regardless of rain or sunshine” (see 199. Importance and Unimportance, #7). Unimportance is also expressed by come what may. For a detailed description of subjunctive COME, see 228. Exotic Grammar Structures 5, #4.

.

18. In other Fixed Phrases

The following are common:

Come again? = Can you repeat that?
come and go = exist briefly[1]
come into its/her (etc.) own = become the most suitable
come of age = reach adulthood
come to terms with… = learn to endure…
come up short = not suffice
come up trumps = find/be the best solution
have it coming = will be punished (for undesirable behaviour)
How come? = How has this happened?[2]
up and coming = approaching the top rank[1].

.

__________

[1]See 209. Fixed Phrases with “and”, #2 and #4
[2]See 274. Questions with a Hidden Meaning, #6

281. Words with Unexpected Grammar 4

.

Grammar errors are likely with words that act differently from words like them in meaning

HOW GRAMMAR CAN BE UNEXPECTED

To use a word correctly, its grammatical properties must be as fully appreciated as its spelling, pronunciation and meaning. The grammar of most words is more than just the kind of word (“part of speech”) that they are: it is the way they are typically used and not used. For example, some verbs allow a following “object” and some do not; some nouns are countable (and hence able to be plural) and some are not; some adverbs can go between not and a verb and some cannot.

Many English grammar errors result from a poor command of the grammatical properties of specific words. The problem is sometimes just a lack of practice in following a correctly-memorized rule with the speed demanded by natural communication (see 202. Some Strategies for Learning English, Practice Strategy #1). Sometimes, however, grammar errors result from an incorrect belief about a word’s grammatical properties.

Such beliefs have various possible causes. One that is considered elsewhere in this blog is the word’s grammatical complexity. Different words have different numbers and types of grammatical possibilities and requirements, and where this variety is very great there is always a risk of the rules being misunderstood or confused (see 201. Words with Complicated Grammar 1).

Another possible cause of a mistaken belief about a word’s grammar is the occasional existence of one or more words in the same grammatical class that have a similar meaning but do not act in the same grammatical way. For example, it is common to believe incorrectly that legislation must be countable because law is (see 250. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar 1, #7).

The reason why the grammar of related words is so influential is probably that very often it certainly is a true indicator of how to use an unfamiliar word. It is this tendency for the majority of related words in the same word class to have the same grammar that justifies the grammar of words outside the majority being called “unexpected”.

This sense of “unexpected grammar” is what the present post deals with. As the title indicates, it is not the first to do so: to access the others, see 10. Words with Unexpected Grammar 1. For information about unexpected meanings of words, see 284. Words with a Surprising Meaning.

The approach here is the same: examples of easily misused words are presented through an “odd-one-out” exercise. Each problem word is located somewhere within a list of similar-meaning words alongside a sentence where all except it are grammatically correct, and the challenge is to identify it. My prediction is that many readers will not correctly manage this in every case. Answers are given and explained afterwards.

.

IDENTIFICATION EXERCISE

In considering the grammatical possibility of each listed word below, keep in mind that grammatical possibility is not the same as logical likelihood (see 100. What is a Grammar Error?). Some of the suggestions below would give a rather unlikely meaning but are still grammatically possible.

(a) The department is … to change its approach.

ATTRACTED, DISPOSED, INCLINED, MINDED, MOTIVATED, PERSUADED, PREPARED

.
(b) In some cultures, chess is … to be a sport.

CLAIMED, CLASSIFIED, CONSIDERED, FELT, JUDGED, PERCEIVED, THOUGHT

.
(c) Numerous … of crime examine its causes.

ANALYSES, ASSESSMENTS, CONSIDERATIONS, ENQUIRIES, EXAMINATIONS, EXPLORATIONS, INVESTIGATIONS, STUDIES

.
(d) Dogs often show … to play games.

A DESIRE, AN INCLINATION, AN INSTINCT, A LOVE, A NEED, A TENDENCY, A WILLINGNESS, A WISH

.
(e) Researchers need to be … funds.

AWARDED, GIVEN, GRANTED, HANDED, LENT, OFFERED, PROVIDED, SENT

.
(f) Caesar … that he would repay his enemies.

GUARANTEED, PLEDGED, PROMISED, SWORE, THREATENED, UNDERTOOK, VOWED, WARNED

.
(g) As Shakespeare …, “All the World’s a Stage”.

ASSERTED, COMMENTED, DESCRIBED, EXPLAINED, OBSERVED, NOTED, POINTED OUT

.

ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS

The incorrect choices are as follows:

(a) *The department is ATTRACTED to change its approach.

Change is usable as either a verb or a noun (see “same as the verb” in 249. Action Noun Endings). Used above, it is a verb because it is followed directly by the object-like noun its approach. If change was a noun, of would be needed after it (see 31. Prepositions after Action Nouns 1).

Since change is a verb, its use without an ending after to can only be the infinitive form. The problem is that ATTRACT cannot be followed by an infinitive verb. The to that sometimes follows it is a preposition, not the start of an infinitive. Prepositions require any verb after them to have the -ing (gerund) ending (see 70. Gerunds, #2).

There is no logical reason why ATTRACT links with a following preposition rather than infinitive, especially when so many verbs with similar meaning do have an infinitive. The fact that the preposition is to is unusual, but by no means unique (see 35. Words Followed by “to-ing”).

.
(b) *In some cultures, chess is CLASSIFIED to be a sport.

All of the verbs listed for this sentence typically accompany two nouns (chess and sport above), of which the second is a description of the first. When the verb is passive, the first noun precedes it as its subject and the second comes after but with added wording in between. This wording in the above sentence is to be. It is possible with all of the listed verbs except CLASSIFY, which needs as instead. PERCEIVE allows a choice between to be and as. CONSIDER, JUDGE and THINK also allow a choice, but between to be and no link wording at all.

CONSIDER is actually found occasionally with as too, but only to express a slightly different meaning (see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #3).

When the above-listed verbs are in the active voice, their subjects become objects placed directly before the second noun (e.g. Some cultures classify chess…). The wording that must or can be added before the second noun remains the same. If it is as (after CLASSIFY, CONSIDER or PERCEIVE) or “zero” (after CONSIDER, JUDGE or THINK), the second noun is said to be an “object complement” (see 92. Verbs with an Object + “as”). With to be, however, it is not.

For more about CLASSIFY, see 162. Writing about Classifications.

.
(c) *Numerous ENQUIRIES of crime examine its causes.

All of the listed words here are nouns derived from a verb. If their related verb was used instead, crime would be its object. Crime could as a result be called “object-like”.

Object-like nouns are often linked to their verb-like partner noun by a preposition. The typical preposition is the one used above: of. This is the correct preposition after all of the listed words except enquiries, which needs into instead when meaning “studies”.

There is a fairly reliable explanation of why enquiries cannot have of: its related verb ENQUIRE also needs into to combine with an object. In general, nouns derived from a verb that uses a preposition before its object (i.e. verbs mostly classified as “prepositional”) have the same preposition when used with an object-like noun (see 31. Prepositions after Action Nouns 1).

.
(d) *Dogs often show A LOVE to play games.

After the noun love here, the infinitive to play should be of playing. It is only after the verb LOVE that the infinitive form is correct. The clue that love in (d) is a noun is its use after a as the object of show. Contrasting grammatical usage of related words in different word classes is quite common (see 78. Infinitive versus Preposition after Nouns).

The other nouns listed earlier all need PLAY after them to be in the infinitive form. This does not mean, however, that nouns in general commonly combine with an infinitive in this way. Instead, there are particular subgroups, perhaps identifiable from their meaning (see the last part of 239. Nouns Combined with a “to” Verb). What is surprising about love is that, although it does not belong to any of these subgroups, its meaning suggests it should – to a subgroup that I have named “wish” verbs.

.
(e) *Researchers need to be PROVIDED funds.

Provided here needs with after it. The other verbs do not because they are the kind that can have an “indirect” object. In other words, their active form allows two following nouns that, with a suitable order, both lack a preceding preposition. The active form of PROVIDE allows two following nouns, but one always needs a preposition (see the end of 126. Verbs with an Indirect Object).

Ability to have an indirect object is, like other verb properties (such as having no object at all) not wholly predictable from a verb’s meaning, but nevertheless likely with certain meaning types. A typical meaning of indirect-object verbs is that of transferring something from one of the noun ideas to the other. PROVIDE can cause error because it too possesses this meaning despite not allowing an indirect object. It instead has to be classified as a “prepositional” verb (see 123. Prepositional Verbs Containing a Noun). Other verbs like it include FURNISH and SUPPLY.

.
(f) *Caesar UNDERTOOK that he would repay his enemies.

All of the listed verbs here can introduce a statement of future behaviour, either a promise or a threat (see 147. Types of Future Meaning, #2). UNDERTAKE is the only one after which the statement would rarely, if ever, begin with that rather than an infinitive (…undertook to repay…).

The probable reason comes from the fact that promise and threat verbs only allow a following that statement if its verb has a different subject from their own. This occurrence is likely to be ruled out by the meaning UNDERTAKE, since undertakings typically concern an action by the person giving them, not by anyone else.

An infinitive is also possible with PLEDGE, PROMISE, THREATEN and VOW (see 302. Verbs with a Partner Infinitive, #1), but not with GUARANTEE (except when it is passive), SWEAR and WARN.

.
(g) *As Shakespeare DESCRIBED, “All the World’s a Stage”.

This sentence reflects the fact that different speech verbs introduce reports in different ways. Described is the only one in the list that needs a following it in (g). A clue to this need is in the fact that DESCRIBE is also the only verb in the list that cannot replace a preceding as with a following that: sentence (g) could easily begin Shakespeare asserted (etc.) that…, but not *Shakespeare described that… .

Unfortunately, not all verbs that lack the ability to combine with that allow as…it instead. Common ones that do besides DESCRIBE are DEFINE, DEPICT, EVALUATE, EXPRESS, PRESENT, PUT IT, REPRESENT and SUMMARISE (see 279. Grammatical Variations among Citation Verbs, #5). Most other verbs that cannot have that cannot have a preceding as at all. Examples are ALLUDE TO, CALL, CRITICISE, REFER TO, REJECT, SINGLE OUT and SPEAK OF.