147. Types of Future Meaning

Most future-referring verbs convey more than just future meaning

HOW FUTURE MEANING CAN VARY

When an English verb is in a future-referring form, it usually also carries secondary information about that future. Consider this:

(a) A vegetarian diet will soon be the norm.

In a newspaper, will here is likely to be indicating not just a future event but also a prediction. However, predictions are only one of many possible meanings that a future-form verb can additionally express. If (a) was addressed to critics of meat eating, it would have more chance of being taken as a promise – a statement guaranteeing a desirable future.

Both of these meanings are conveyed by the grammatical form will: readers are able to understand the right meaning from the context and/or their general knowledge of the world. In some other cases, however, English grammar does give some help. The absence of will in the following helps to ensure that neither a prediction nor a promise is being expressed:

(b) The Director is meeting the Finance Manager tomorrow.

Here, is meeting is a future-referring verb in the “present continuous” tense (see 316. Verb Futures without “will” or “shall”, #1). Its added meaning might be described as arrangement-reporting.

All of these different uses of future-referring verb forms illustrate what I mean by “types of future meaning”. English has many others. This post seeks to identify those that seem the most important in professional writing, highlighting linguistic differences between them. For other Guinlist posts that touch on English tense usage, see 76. Tenses of Citation Verbs,  171. Aspects of the Past Perfect Tense,  225. Simultaneous Occurrence and 282. Features of History Writing.

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FUTURE-FORM MEANINGS IN PROFESSIONAL WRITING

1. Predictions

Predictions – belief statements about the future – are common in business and academia in areas like economics, science and politics. They may be either the speaker’s own or someone’s else’s reported (see 238. Using a Verb to Perform its Action).

The use of will illustrated in sentence (a) is common in predictions, but by no means the only possibility. One well-known alternative is going to, commonly preferred when the prediction accompanies an obvious clue to its being fulfilled, such as bubbles in water predicted to boil (see 176. Ways of Using GO, #7). About to is similar (see 269. Exotic Grammar Structures 7, #6). Both will and going to can accompany only so as to name something unwanted that will happen instead of what is wanted (see 251. The Grammar of “Only”, #7).

A problem with both will and going to, however, is that they imply certainty when statements about the future can hardly ever be certain (see 96. Making Statements More Uncertain 2). The probable reason why they remain common in predictions is that most people know their limitations and understand them correctly as a result.

Nevertheless, there are situations, especially in professional writing, where precision about the future is necessary, so that will in particular becomes inappropriate. One example is controversial predictions, which will be criticised if there is any doubt about their accuracy. The simplest means of achieving greater precision is verbs that are grammatically like will but refer to the future in a less definite way. In descending order of prediction strength these are should, may, might and could (see 237. Auxiliary Verbs in Professional Communication, #3).

Another way to reduce the certainty of will is by combining it with a probability adverb like probably, perhaps, possibly, conceivably, feasibly or probably not (see 121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs, #3). Surprisingly, adverbs that seem to assert 100% probability, such as certainly, definitely and undoubtedly, are also usable. This is because in predictions they are no longer probability adverbs, but instead attribute certainty to the speaker rather than the future, thus indicating just a firm belief (see 224. Asserting the Truth of what you Say).

The meaning of probability adverbs can additionally be expressed with their related nouns or adjectives, usually combined with a present-tense form of BE. One approach is to make the predicted idea the subject of BE:

(c) Interstellar travel is likely/a likelihood in the future.

For more on interchangeable nouns and adjectives after BE, see 270. Paraphrasing Adjectives with Words of Other Kinds, #1. For more on in the future, see 48. Tricky Word Contrasts 1, #11.

Besides likely, probability adjectives and nouns include probable (a probability), possible (a possibility), feasible, doubtful (a doubt) and unlikely. Certain (a certainty) is also usable, for the same reason as certainly. Certain, likely and unlikely allow not only all of the prediction before them, as above, but also part of it after them as a to verb (…is certain to happen: see 226. Words with Complicated Grammar 2, #2).

Another use of these adjectives and nouns is after it is, with the prediction following in a that statement (see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “it”). For a detailed analysis of this use with possible, see 181. Expressing Possibility.

Finally, predictions can be expressed with prediction verbs like ENVISAGE, EXPECT, FORECAST, FORESEE, FORETELL, PREDICT and PROPHESY. These can report a prediction as active verbs before that…will… or as passive ones before to… (see 299. Infinitives after a Passive Verb, #2). The latter leaves the prediction verb as the only indicator of the future meaning.

To make predictions, the above verbs can be active after I / we (I predict…), or passive after it can or it is to:

(d) It can (or is to) be expected that El Niño WILL RAISE global temperatures.

The subject of the predicted event can also precede can be expected to (El Niño can be expected to raise…), so that all the future meaning is again in the prediction verb. For more on using can to avoid I, see the end of 237. Auxiliary Verbs in Professional Communication.

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2. Promises and Threats

These name a future event, behaviour or situation – positive for promises, negative for threats – aimed at influencing the addressee’s thinking or behaviour. They seem more likely in business than academic writing. As mentioned above, sentence (a) could be understood as a promise. Here is a sentence that, in the right context, might be a threat:

(e) If results are unsatisfactory, the contract will/may/could be terminated.

Again, the verb includes will or a less definite equivalent – seemingly a normal choice for promises and threats. Sometimes the if part is replaced by a noun (Unsatisfactory results…), the verb then being something like will cause… . Promises occasionally have provided instead of if (see 179. Deeper Meanings of “if”).

As with predictions, the idea of a promise or threat can be made explicit with a special verb. Common ones are GUARANTEE, PROMISE, PLEDGE, UNDERTAKE, VOW, THREATEN and WARN. The underlined verbs can combine with to… or that…will / would, but GUARANTEE and WARN need that…, and UNDERTAKE needs to… (see 281. Words with Unexpected Grammar 4, #f). Verbs before to… carry the future meaning themselves.

Apart from THREATEN, all these verbs either make or report a promise or threat (I warn/pledge…;  X pledges…). THREATEN only reports. The usage is sometimes metaphorical (see 7. Metaphorical Meanings):

(f) Global warming threatens to raise sea levels.

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3. Arrangements

Arrangements are future plans agreed by two or more people. Their making is likely to involve will:

(g) OK, we’ll meet at 6.00.

However, when an arrangement is relayed, as in (b) above, the present continuous tense seems more typical.

Alternatively, one can relay an arrangement with BE TO – is to meet in (b). The suggestion then is that the subject of the verb is less responsible for initiating the arrangement than the other person (see 119. BE Before a “to” Verb. and 129. Differences between Necessity Verbs).

As these examples suggest, arrangement-relaying can easily occur in business contexts, especially spoken.

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4. Imminent Message Content

This means information for readers or listeners about what they are shortly going to read or hear. It is a form of “signposting”, rather like that done with questions (see 274. Questions with a Hidden Meaning, #8), verbs with let (see 128. Imperative Verbs in Formal Writing) and sentences before a list (see 122. Signpost Words in Multi-Sentence Lists).

Verbs with future meaning are particularly used for signposting in introductions to extended pieces of academic and business communication like essays, reports and oral presentations, e.g.:

(h) Chapter 1 will clarify the extent of the problem.

The use of will again seems common. Going to and shall (after I) are informal alternatives in oral presentations (see 186. Language in Oral Presentations), but should be avoided in formal writing. The present simple tense (clarifies above) is sometimes found. It might still be future-referring, but arguably is not because the subsequent text is only a future for the reader – not for the writer. It could just be a way of allowing writers to impose their own present-time perspective.

Interestingly, abstracts, which also summarise the main features of a message before it is read, seem to prefer the present simple tense to a verb with will. This may be because reading or listening to the associated text is a much less definite future: abstracts are designed to be read by people who are not sure whether or not they need the associated information and are as likely to ignore it as keep reading.

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5. Speaker Plans

These differ from arrangements in not being made cooperatively with someone else. A speaker’s plan for other people is often indicated with will:

(i) Jones will play at right back.

This says the speaker has planned the role of Jones: it implies the words I have decided. If the sentence speaker is not the person who made the plan, the verb is more likely to have is going to or is -ing. Here are some more examples like (i):

(j) Drinks will be sold during the interval.

(k) The visitors will depart at 7.00 a.m.

An alternative to will in such sentences, if the speaker wishes to play down or mask their involvement in the plan, is the vaguer present simple tense. It often suggests timetabled events:

(l) The Sociology lecture takes place on Friday.

Plans for the speaker’s own behaviour can be expressed with I/we + either shall… or INTEND / PLAN / PROPOSE + to verb. 

Speaker plans are probably rare in academic writing, but very common in academic speech and in both written and spoken business communication.

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OTHER FUTURE MEANINGS

There are numerous other future meanings, but they seem less likely in professional communication. Many can be read about in mainstream grammar descriptions.

Some of the most important of these meanings include commands, expectations, intentions, decisions and warnings. Commands are mostly associated with must or imperative verbs, but can also have will or even shall (see 129. Differences between Necessity Verbs). The others all allow either will or going to. Expectations can alternatively have a verb like ANTICIPATE, EXPECT or LOOK FORWARD TO. For advice on using the last of these, see 271. Tricky Grammar Contrasts 3, #1. For a definition of intention, see 114. Tricky Word Contrasts 3, #5.

146. Some Important Prefix Types

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English prefixes are of numerous types and allow creation of many words

DEFINITION & IMPORTANCE OF PREFIXES

A prefix is a kind of subdivision in some words. It is likely to be:

(i)  Joined onto the start of a possible English word, often with a hyphen.

(ii) Adding meaning to the partner word.

(iii) Able to occur in numerous other words.

(iv) Unable to be used alone as a word.

Point (i) can explain some doubled consonants in English, as in dissatisfied (see 248. When to Double a Consonant, #3). For some information about hyphen use, see 223. Uses of Hyphens, #3. Point (iv) helps to differentiate prefixes from “roots” – meaningful word parts that are just as central as the word they are added to, such as house- in household (see 26. One Word or Two? and 106. Word-Like Suffixes).

An example of a prefix is post- meaning “after” in words like post-natal, post-primary, postscript and postdate. It complies with (iv) despite the fact that there is also a separate word post, the reason of course being that the two meanings are not obviously related.

English prefixes are varied and widespread. Familiarity with them can help writers to be more concise (see 265. The Importance of Grammar in Writing, #3), and readers to guess the meanings of unfamiliar words containing them (see 177. How to Guess Meanings in a Text). The aim here is not to provide a full survey, which can easily be found elsewhere, but to give a flavour of the variety, in the hope of motivating further study.

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PREFIXES AND PREFIX-LIKE SPELLINGS

Prefixes need to be distinguished from non-prefix spellings in the same position that look like them and mean the same. An example of these latter is post- in postpone and posthumous. It is not a prefix because it does not fulfil condition (i) above (-pone and -humous are not possible words).

An explanation of this variation is that spellings like -post entered English in two different ways from the ancient language Latin (where it was a preposition – see 45. Latin Clues to English Spelling). The non-prefix use was adopted by English as part of a Latin word rather than as an addition to an existing English word, so that removing it is unlikely to leave a meaningful English word. The prefix use, by contrast, was adopted later (my dictionary says by Middle English, about 1000 years ago). It did not come linked to particular Latin words, but was available for addition to existing English ones, whether of Latin origin or not.

There is a similar situation with other prefixes derived from Latin prepositions:

Extra (“outside”) is a prefix in extraordinary, extramarital and extra-terrestrial. but not in extraneous or extrapolate.

Inter (“between”) is a prefix in international, interstate and intertwine, but not in interest, interpret or intervene.

Pre (“before”) is a prefix in pre-existing, preheat, prehistoric and pre-natal, but not in prefer, pretend or prevent.

Pro (“for”) is a prefix in pronoun, proverb and pro-government, but not in produce, profile and protect.

Re (“again”) is a prefix in resit, reclaim, re-evaluate and renew, but not in receive, repeat or reveal.

Sub- (“under”) is a prefix in subdivision (and similar – see 162. Writing about Classifications), submarine and sub-let, but not in subsist, subvert or support.

Super (“above”) is a prefix in super-heated, superintendent, supernatural and supersonic, but not in supersede or supervise.

Trans- (“across”) is a prefix in trans-Atlantic, transnational and trans-sexual, but not in transport or transcript.

The same contrast is seen with some prefixes of Greek origin (see 90. The Greek Impact on English Vocabulary):

Anti (“against”) is a prefix in anti-clockwise, anticyclone, antitank and anti-war, but not in antigen or antipathy.

Hyper (“above”) is a prefix in hyper-market, hypersensitive and hypertext, but not in hyperbole.

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NEGATIVE PREFIXES

Negative meaning can be expressed in numerous other ways than with the grammatical word not (see 310. Aspects of Negation). Prefixes are a common non-grammatical way (see 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #4). There are four common ones:

Un- is mostly added to adjectives and participles, sometimes to nouns (underlined below). It has no hyphen except before a capital letter (un-American). Although it is also found with verbs, its meaning there is mostly “reverse” rather than “not” (uncover, undress, undo, untie). Common un- words are:

un-American, unbelief, unbending, unbroken, uncomplaining, unfailing, ungrammatical, uninspiring, unelected, unexplained, unhappy, unhelpful, unprofessional, unrest, unseemly, unsuitable, untrue, unwilling(ness), unwise
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Dis- has to be distinguished from the similarly-spelt Latin prefix meaning “widely” (in words like display, disseminate and dispel). Like un-, it can mean “reverse” as well as “not”, particularly in verbs, e.g. disappear, disarm, discharge, discredit, disembark and disown. With the not meaning, it is common on nouns that have a related adjective (or vice versa).

Disbelief and unbelief reflect two different meanings of BELIEVE: the former “strongly doubting the truth of a statement or situation”, the latter “not accepting a religious system or idea”. Similarly, disinterested and uninterested both exist, respectively meaning “not involved” and “not interested”. Common dis- words are:

disarray, disbelieving (disbelief), discourteous (discourtesy), dishonest(y), disinterest(ed), disorder(ly), disproportionate, disregard(ing), dissatisfied (dissatisfaction), dissimilar(ity), distaste(ful), distrust(ful)

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Non- usually has a hyphen. Like un-, it is mostly combined with nouns, adjectives and participles. With nouns, it can express absence from a group (non-member, non-professional, non-smoker). Participles with non- (underlined above) seem less common than those with un-, but are still quite numerous.

With adjectives, non- is sometimes used instead of un- to avoid a subjective judgment: an unprofessional footballer is a professional one failing to behave as required, while a non-professional footballer is just not a professional one. An unbelievable story is amazing or extremely good/bad, whereas a non-believable story is simply one that cannot be believed (see 114. Tricky Word Contrasts 3, #7). Common non- words are:

non-believable, non-conformist, non-grammatical, non-member, non-native, non-negotiable, non-payment, non-professional, non-refundable, non-smoker, non-stop, non-playing, non-standing, non-selected

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In- goes mainly with adjectives and nouns. The “n” becomes “l”, “m”, or “r” before those letters, and “m” before “p”. Words to which in- can be added seem rather unpredictable. The adjectives of inability and inequality, for example, are unable and unequal, while inexplicable exists alongside unexplained. Since in- can also mean “into” (as in inflammable), confusion sometimes results (see 284. Words with a Surprising Meaning). Common in- words are:

illegitimate (illegitimacy), illogical(ity), immovable, imperfect(ion), impervious, impractical, inadvisable, incapable, inconsiderate, inequality, inexplicable, inhuman(ity), inimitable, insecure, irregular(ity), irrational(ity), irreplaceable

Alongside the four main negative prefixes, de- – usually pronounced /di:/ rather than /dɪ/ (see 86. The Pronunciation of “e” and “i”) – is worth noting. It resembles un- and dis- in expressing reversal, but mainly the kind where something is removed. Thus, descale means “remove limescale” and defuse “remove a fuse” (see 236. Tricky Word Contrasts 9, #4). Other examples are debrief, decode, decontaminate, dehydrate, deindustrialise, demerge, demobilise, demotivate, depopulate and de-skill.

Also notable is a- meaning “without” in some words of Greek origin, including amorphous, apathetic, apolitical, asexual, atheist and atypical. The last is useful for naming exceptions.

Finally, two negative prefixes that mean “badly” rather than “not” are mis- and ill-. The former is well illustrated by misleading, meaning “giving a wrong idea” (see 319. Superficiality, #2). Other examples are misbehave, misconduct, misdemeanour, misfire, misfit, misinterpret, misrepresent, mistake, mistreat, mistype and misunderstand. Mis- seems typical of verbs and the nouns derived from them, plus a few other nouns (underlined).

Ill- (= “badly”) must not be confused with the il-l made by changing in-. Examples are ill-advised, ill-bred, ill-fitting, ill-prepared, ill-represented, ill-timed, ill-treat and ill-use. A hyphen is usual, and participle partners are common.. The verb ill-treat implies cruelty more than mistreat.

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OTHER PREFIXES

 1. Latin and Greek Borrowings

Ex- (“out of” in Latin) often means “former”, as in ex-member, ex-president and ex-wife. Semi-, Latin for “half”, is found in words like semi-conscious, semi-final and semi-professional. Multi- (“many” in Latin) exists in multi-coloured, multi-cultural, multi-lingual and multi-talented (for a note on pronunciation, see 86. The Pronunciation of “e” and “i”).

Greek borrowings include pseudo- (meaning “fake”), established in words like pseudonym and pseudo-intellectual and able to create new words like pseudo-expert. Auto- (“self” in Greek) exists in such words as autobiography, automobile and autopilot.

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2. Prefixes Evolved in English

Some prefixes of this kind are widespread. En- (broadly = “into”) makes numerous verbs, including empower, enable, enact, encamp, encode, endanger, endear, enforce, engulf, enlarge, enlighten, enrich, enthrone, entitle, entrust and envision. The other part of en- verbs may by itself be a noun, verb or adjective. However, adjectives (underlined) are quite rare: the corresponding suffix -en is more likely, as in blacken and widen (see 4. Verbs that Don’t Have to be Passive).

Mid- (“middle”) makes nouns like mid-life, midnight, mid-sentence, mid-20s, mid-term and midwinter. Note the variable hyphen use. Like most nouns, these are usable in an adjective way before another noun (e.g. mid-life crisis).

Oft- (=”often”) combines with participles to make such adjectives as oft-encountered and oft-remembered. Lastly, a- (= “in”) makes such adjectives as abroad, afar, alive and alone. These cannot precede their noun, but have to follow it with BE in between (see 184. Adjectives with Limited Mobility).

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3. Word-Like Prefixes

Some spellings seem best considered prefixes even though they do not meet all the above-listed requirements. Among these are spellings that can also be words by themselves (like suffixes that do the same: see 106. Word-Like Suffixes).

One important group resembles prepositions, typically the same ones that can go alone after BE (see 154. Lone Prepositions after BE). As prefixes they also resemble the first parts of nouns made from phrasal verbs (input, outbreak, upturn etc. – see 139. Phrasal Verbs). However, these latter may be better thought of as roots rather than prefixes, since they have a clear link to two-word verbs.

Examples of preposition-like prefixes are as follows. Note the variable hyphen use.

downbeat, downhearted, downside, downstairs

in-demand, in-form, in-house

offhand, off-licence, off-limits, offline, offroad, offscreen, offside

on-line, onscreen, onshore

outdo, outlast, outperform, outplay, outrun, outsell, outsmart, outthink, outwit (out- = “better”: see 298. Grammar Meanings without Grammar, #8)

outfit, outline, outmoded, outworn

over-arching, *over-burden, *overdo, *over-emphasise, overhang, over-hear, overlook (see 284. Words with a Surprising Meaning, #14), overhead (= “above”), overheads (= “extra expenses”), *overpopulated, *over-zealous, overcoat, overtime (* shows over- = “excessively”)

underachieving, underestimate, underfed, undernourished, underpass

upbeat, upcountry, update (verb), update (noun), uphill (adverb), uphill (adjective), uphold, upstairs

Underlining here means the prefix has the word’s main stress. This seemingly happens mostly in nouns, uphill being an exception (see 243. Pronunciation Secrets, #7). 

Note also:

self- (always hyphenated) combines with nouns (e.g. self-assurance), adjectives (e.g. self-righteous), and the occasional verb (e.g. self-isolate). For more examples, see the end of 268. Types of “-self” Object).

half- makes combinations like half-baked, half-hearted, half-kilo and halftime.

ever- meaning “always” is perhaps more a root than a prefix, but is especially prefix-like before participles (where it needs a hyphen), e.g. ever-complaining, ever-working, ever-despised (see 272. Uses of “Ever”, #1).