182. Structures with a Double Meaning 2

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Some grammar structures are able to be understood in more than one way, just like some words

DOUBLE-MEANING STRUCTURES IN ENGLISH

Structures in language are a result of combining multiple meaningful parts together according to a rule. They can be a single word (e.g. a combination of a prefix and a root – see 26. One Word or Two?), or a group of words, or a group of word groups. This post, like others with a similar title (listed in 124. Structures with a Double Meaning 1), is about a particular kind of structure in the latter two groups: able to be understood in two or more different ways.

Structures of this type are relatively rare, but they are useful to know about to reduce both misunderstanding in reading and ambiguity in writing (see 265. Grammar Tools for Better Writing, #6). A simple example is passive verbs that describe either an action or a state, such as was closed referring to either initiation of closure or its static continuation (see 66. Types of Passive Verb Meaning).

The aim of this post is to offer a further list of fairly common multi-word combinations that can be interpreted in alternative ways. To read about single words with a variable meaning, see 3. Multi-Use Words,  7. Metaphorical Meanings,  11. Homonyms and Homographs,  116. Rarer Uses of HAVE,  121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs and 256. Unusual Meanings of Familiar Words.

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LIST OF SOME STRUCTURES

1. “Going to…”

Most English courses have plenty to say about the use of BE GOING TO for expressing the future, especially how it differs in meaning from will (for one aspect of this question within these pages, see 147. Types of Future Meaning, #1). However, not all uses of BE GOING TO express a simple future. Consider this:

(a) Many people travelled to holy places. Most were going to pray.

One way of understanding were going to here is in the expected way as a subtle alternative to would, the past equivalent of will. In this interpretation, the second sentence is just a statement of future destiny. However, one could also interpret were going as an ordinary use of GO, similar in meaning to were travelling. The subsequent to would then be understood as purpose-showing, helping to say why the travelling was taking place (see 35. “to do” versus “to doing” and 60. Purpose Sentences with “for”).

There are two conditions for the existence of this double meaning. One is the suggestion of a destination – made here in the sentence before – in order to open up the possibility of going to meaning “travelling”. The possible involvement of a destination after going in (a) can be “proved” by the fact that there could be added to represent it. The other condition for the double meaning is that the meaning of the to verb could logically be a purpose in the sentence in question.

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2. “A belief that…”

The potential for double meanings here results from the ability of that to be understood either as a relative pronoun meaning “which” or as a conjunction introducing indirect speech (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”). Consider this:

(b) There is a belief that nothing changes.

If that is a relative pronoun here, it is the object of changes, so that the sentence tells us not what is believed but that nothing changes the indicated belief. On the other hand, if that is a conjunction, we are being told what is believed, namely the absence of change.

Two conditions must be met for this kind of double meaning to be understood. Firstly, the noun before that must be the kind that allows a conjunction use of this word as well as a relative pronoun one. Many nouns do not. Those that do often express ways of speaking or thinking – rather like verbs before indirect speech (see 287. Speech and Thought Nouns). Belief, for example, is a way of thinking, related to the verb BELIEVE. Other examples are advice, idea, impression, message, prejudice, statement and thought.

Other nouns that allow a conjunction use of that are hard to characterise in a general way. Examples are advantage, problem and possibility. For more, see the post on that.

The second condition for a double meaning is that the verb after that (changes above) must be of the special kind usable both with and without an object (see 4. Verbs that don’t have to be Passive). CHANGE is a verb of this kind because we can say that education either changes lives or simply changes (= undergoes change to itself). Similar verbs include DEVELOP, END, INCREASE and MOVE.

The reason why the verb after that must be like this is that one of the two meanings (“unchangeable belief”) involves recognising an object and the other (“belief in no change”) does not. If we recognise an object, it is that used as a pronoun (representing the earlier noun belief); if we do not, that has its conjunction use.

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3. “More difficult decisions”

This double meaning results from the multi-use nature of more. We can understand more as going either with decisions, indicating “more decisions of a difficult kind”, or with difficult, indicating “decisions of a more difficult kind”. These alternative interpretations are likely to exist whenever more accompanies an adjective whose comparative form is made with it rather than with -er, and the next word is a plural or uncountable noun.

The technical grammar explanation is that the uses of more are either as a “degree” adverb partnering a verb or adjective, such as difficult, or as an adjective, partnering a following uncountable or plural noun, such as decisions. If more precedes both an adjective and an uncountable or plural noun, then the two uses are hard to separate even for grammar-checking software (see 275. How Computers Get Grammar Wrong 3, #4). Note that before a singular countable noun no such problem exists: in a more difficult decision, for example, more can only be making the comparative form of difficult.

Unlike many double-meaning structures, this one seems to frequently resist the ability of context to make the intended meaning clear. As a result I personally quite often try to write something different in order to prevent confusion. When more partners the following noun, I find additional a useful alternative. When the partnership is with an adjective, I might seek an adjective synonym that allows an -er comparative, or use the paraphrase NOUN of a more ADJECTIVE kind.

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4. “Make people tools”

This could mean either “cause people to be tools” or “manufacture tools for people”. In the first case, people is the object of make, and tools describes them. Grammatically tools is an “object complement” – a noun that make establishes as a description of its object (see 92. Verbs with an Object + “as”).

In the second case, tools is the object of make, and people is an “indirect” object – the beneficiary or recipient of the object with the implied preposition for (see 126. Verbs with an Indirect Object).

The double meaning is made possible by the fact that MAKE, unlike most verbs, can be used with two directly-following nouns in both object-complement and indirect-object sentences (see 141. Ways of Using MAKE). However, not all instances of MAKE with two nouns have a double meaning; this only happens when specific types of noun are involved. The first one must usually represent something living (in order to allow the indirect object meaning); the second must have the alternative meanings of either something one has or something one is.

The word tools can very obviously mean something one has, but it can also metaphorically mean something one is: people are said to be tools when they are manipulated by other people. Such metaphorical usage is common in expressions like the one in question, but not inevitable: it seems to be absent, for example, in make their friends enemies, which means either “cause their friends to be their enemies” or “create some enemies for their friends”.

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5. “a need to meet”

The double meaning here concerns what is met: a need or other people. In the first case, need is the object of meet and the phrase means “a need that has to be met”. In the second the object of meet is an implicit “someone”, so we understand “a need to meet someone”.

The structure essentially comprises a noun (here need) followed directly by a to verb. It commonly follows HAVE (see 116. Rarer Uses of HAVE, final paragraph), though a few other verbs, especially there is, are also found. The first meaning, with the noun the object of the to verb, is the default: most nouns can be followed by a to verb of which they are the object, other examples being work to do, bills to pay and problems to solve (see 239. Nouns Combined with a “to” Verb).

The second meaning becomes possible when the noun is a special one that can directly precede a to verb of which it is neither the subject nor the object. Besides need, such nouns include command, duty, refusal, time, way and wish. However, even with nouns like this, the to verb will often have a visible separate object, e.g. a need to meet some friends, so that the double meaning is ruled out.

For this not to happen, the verb has to be of the “object-dropping” kind: able to drop its object but still implying it (see 8. Object-Dropping Errors). Examples besides MEET (someone) are DRIVE (a vehicle), EAT (food), LOSE (a contest), READ (a book), SMOKE (tobacco) or WRITE (script). Further double-meaning expressions possible with these include no time to lose (“no time that can be lost” vs. “not enough time for defeat to happen”), a way to follow (“a way that has to be followed” vs. “a way of following something”), a command to read and a wish to write.

Verbs like this can actually create another kind of double meaning if combined with a different sort of noun before them. For details, see 257. Structures with a Double Meaning 4, #4.

181. Expressing Possibility

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The word “possible” hides a variety of sub-meanings that other words may express more precisely

THE HIDDEN COMPLEXITY OF POSSIBILITY IN ENGLISH

At first sight, there does not seem to be much of a problem with expressing the idea of possibility in English: it is a seemingly single idea with numerous linguistic realizations to choose from. The problem, however, is that these realizations are not all interchangeable: different situations require different choices to be made.

Further investigation suggests that the different ways of indicating possibility express slightly different meanings. In other words, the idea of “possibility” actually covers a range of sub-meanings, rather like various other common grammar terms analysed within this blog, such as “necessity”, “existence”, “importance” and “conditional”. The result is that, in order to make the right linguistic choice in the expression of possibility, one must know and understand its various sub-meanings.

In this post I wish to explore these sub-meanings, along with the typical ways of expressing them. The outcome, I hope, will be a fairly complete overview of how and why the expression of possibility can vary in English. The first sections below deal with meanings and uses of the words possible and possibility, while the last examines some of their synonyms.

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USES OF “POSSIBLE”

The fundamental meaning of the adjective possible is “able to happen” or “able to exist”. Various sub-meanings are observable in particular sentences. Consider these:

(a) Time travel is possible.

(b) Currency exchange is possible here.

(c) Snow is possible today.

Sentence (a) associates something (time travel) with the general ability to happen or exist, rather than ability in a particular place at a particular time: the statement is of absolute possibility.

In (b), possible expresses ability of something (currency exchange) to happen in a particular situation, such as a shop. This leads to the additional suggestion of availability or usability.

Sentence (c) is also about a particular ability to happen or exist, but the happening or existence cannot be observed by the speaker (in this case because it is in the future). As a consequence, the additional idea of 50% probability is involved. This use of possible and its related adverb possibly is common in predictions and opinions (see 96. Making Statements More Uncertain 2,  107. The Language of Opinions,  121. Sentence-Spanning Adverbs #3 and 147. Types of Future Meaning #1).

Beyond these simple uses, possible has some more complex ones involving particular following words. One common type of following wording is a to verb e.g.:

(d) It is possible to travel in time.

Placing possible to after it + BE in this way seems to be standard. Starting with the possible idea, as in the following, is not recommended:

(e) ?Time travel is possible to achieve.

For the probable reason why a starting it is preferred, see 103. Representing a Later Statement with “it”.

Possible to expresses absolute possibility in (d), but this kind of sentence will often express one of the other basic meanings instead. Before a speech verb such as …to define or …to classify it further indicates that the writer’s own opinion is being given.

Quite often, possible and a to verb are separated by for and a subject noun. Again this can create extra meaning. Compare the following with (d):

(f) It is possible for most birds to fly.

(g) It is possible for graduates to undertake further study.

Sentence (f) names an absolute possibility (to fly) that is shown by for to apply only to some creatures. The sub-meaning might be described as capability, easily paraphrasable with the words have the capability of -ing. Sentence (g) too would, if understood as a statement of general rather than particular ability to happen, illustrate the sub-meaning of capability.

On the other hand, if (g) is understood as a statement by a university about its graduate entry policy, so that it expresses particular rather than general ability to happen (with the added idea of availability), possible will also carry the idea of opportunity or even permission. Unlike (f), it could be paraphrased with have the opportunity to or are allowed to.

Both capability and opportunity/permission imply desirability of the possible thing. I see the difference between them to lie in the source of the possibility. Capability comes from within – the person or thing possessing it is also its source. For example, birds’ capability of flight comes from something that is part of them – their wings. Opportunity and permission, on the other hand, are possibility sourced from outside – the source is not in the person or thing possessing the possibility. For example, the opportunity of graduates to undertake further study comes from other people’s rules. Possessing a degree may be necessary but not sufficient.

Sometimes possible is followed by for without a subsequent to verb. The to-verb meaning must then usually be expressed by the subject of the sentence, as in these rephrasings of (f) and (g):

(h) Flight is possible for most birds.

(i) Further study is possible for graduates.

The subject nouns here are both of the “action” kind (see 131. Uses of “Action” Nouns) – probably common in such sentences. The sub-meanings of possible are the same as those in (e) and (f).

Another typical word after possible is that (see 153. Conjunction Uses of “that”). Again, there is usually a starting it:

(j) It is possible that life exists on other planets.

This kind of sentence seems most likely to express the 50% probability meaning of possible. Indeed, sentences that express this meaning with …is possible, such as (c) above, seem to be particularly paraphrasable with possible that (It is possible that it will snow today).

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USES OF “POSSIBILITY”

Like possible, the noun possibility is usable either by itself or with typical following wording. By itself it is often used within the phrase is a possibility:

(k) Time travel (or currency exchange or snow) is a possibility.

As the choice of subjects shows, this use can equally express absolute possibility, availability and 50% probability. Availability sometimes has the idea of “option” or “alternative” added to it. This happens where the existence of alternatives is obvious, as for example in the following:

(l) One possibility is the dollar.

Here, one implies the existence of others (see 263. Uses of “One” and “Ones”). For another approach, see 266. Indicating Alternatives, #4.

The typical following words of possibility are of and that (rarely to – see 78. Infinitive versus Preposition after Nouns). With these, possibility can occupy any of the normal noun positions in a sentence, but is especially common after There is:

(m) There is a possibility of snow/time travel.

(n) There is a possibility that it will snow.

As these suggest, adding of can express either absolute possibility or 50% probability, while adding that expresses only the latter. Sentence (n) is very similar to (j) – indeed, it could be paraphrased with a starting It is possible…. More on the similarity of It and There sentences is in 161. Special Uses of “There” Sentences.

The sub-meanings of capability and opportunity or permission are less common with possibility than possible. This is because the verb HAVE, the natural choice for linking these meanings with their possessor, typically does so with other nouns than possibility as its object: (cap)ability or chance or opportunity or permission. Thus, paraphrasing sentence (f) with have requires an object like the ability to fly, not *the possibility of flying; and (g) would probably say have the opportunity to undertake…. Note that occasion is not a synonym of opportunity (see 236. Tricky Word Contrasts 9, #3).

Perhaps the most acceptable use of possibility after HAVE is to express 50% probability, e.g.:

(o) The hypothesis has a possibility of being correct.

However, even here chance seems equally if not more natural.

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OTHER POSSIBILITY WORDS

1. Synonyms of “Possible” and “Possibility”

Many adjectives express the idea of possibility through the suffix -able (or -ible). For example, acceptable means that accepting is possible, divisible that dividing is. Usually, the part without the suffix corresponds to a passive verb. For more examples, see 27. How to Avoid Passive Verbs and 106. Word-Like Suffixes.

Although it is normally only the suffix that expresses possibility in such words, there are a few instances where the whole word is a synonym of possible. The following adjectives seem at least sometimes able to express one or other of its meanings.

ALTERNATIVE: available, usable, alternative

50% PROBABLE: feasible, potential

ABSOLUTELY POSSIBLE: achievable, conceivable, feasible, imaginable, real, viable

ABLE TO BE DONE BY SB/STH: achievable, viable

EXISTING AS AN OPPORTUNITY: achievable, available, open

ALLOWED: allowed, permitted

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On the other hand, possibility has at least the following noun synonyms:

ALTERNATIVE: an alternative, choice, option

50% PROBABILITY: a potential (+ for)

ABSOLUTE POSSIBILITY: a reality

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2. Modal Verbs

Can and/or may seem able to express all of the above meanings:

ALTERNATIVE: can, may (Cars can/may go left or right)

50% PROBABLE: may (It may snow)

ABSOLUTELY POSSIBLE: can (Mars can be reached)

ABLE TO BE DONE BY SB/STH: can (Most birds can fly)

EXISTING AS AN OPPORTUNITY: can (Travellers can learn languages)

ALLOWED: can, may (Only members can/may enter)

Despite these equivalences, it should not be thought that can and may only express possibility. For some other uses, see 237. Auxiliary Verbs in Professional Communication. As an example, can occasionally means “sometimes”, e.g. Cold can kill (see 95. Making Statements More Uncertain 1).

May is not the only modal verb that can express probability. Stronger or weaker strengths than that equating to “possible” are expressed by may well (around 70%), might (30%) and could (10%).

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3. Other Verbs

When “possibility” means “capability”, “opportunity” or “permission”, various other verbs are alternatives to can and may. BE ABLE TO and BE CAPABLE OF can directly replace capability-showing can.

Verbs like ALLOW, ENABLE, FACILITATE, LET and PERMIT need to be passive to have the holder of the possibility as their subject (Cars are permitted to…), but can also have it as their object by being in the active form (The law permits cars to…). For full details of their usage, see 65. Verbs that Mean “Must” or “Can”.

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4. “As if”

The 50% probability meaning of it is possible that is perhaps also implied by some uses of as if:

(p) It looks as if it is snowing.

We understand here that snow could actually be falling. In general, a statement after as if expresses possible truth when the verb tense is a natural one: present indicating present possibility, future (will snow) future possibility etc. Other verb forms deny the possibility: was snowing in (p) would clearly indicate no actual snow, was going to snow no imminent snow (see 191. Exotic Grammar Structures 3, # 3).

180. Nouns that Count the Uncountable

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Surprisingly many uncountable nouns can be linked by of to a countable partner for greater flexibility

DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE

The kind of noun that this post is about tends to be first met very early on by learners of English – perhaps in their first lessons on the concept of “uncountable” nouns. The words in question are not themselves “uncountable”, but are often combined with such nouns in order to overcome the restrictions of uncountability. Typical combinations, with the countable nouns underlined, are a loaf of bread, a piece of furniture and a round of applause.

Perhaps the most obvious problem for uncountable nouns is preceding number words, which usually need a following noun to be plural (see 204. Grammatical Agreement). Uncountable nouns cannot be plural – combinations like *six breads are not usually possible. Also problematic – and probably more frequent – are singular words that combine only with countable nouns, such as one, a(n) or each (see 169. “All”, “Each” and “Every”).

Countable partner nouns are the main way of solving such problems (though alternatives are sometimes necessary – see below). They meet the countability requirements themselves and then link to the uncountable main noun with of. Here is an used with the uncountable noun mail:

(a) If an ITEM of mail is wrongly-addressed, return it to the sender.

Like most elementary topics, the countable partners of uncountable nouns turn out to be much more complex than is suggested by the lessons where they are first presented. Moreover, I personally have never seen any follow-up lessons that seek to build on the basic concept and present a wider variety of the words in question. It is this that I am aiming to do here.

In particular, I wish to include countable nouns that typically accompany uncountable ones of an abstract kind, a category that tends to be overlooked, for understandable reasons, in elementary courses, but which is of especial importance in professional writing. I will also review various other ways of “making the uncountable countable”.

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THE MEANING OF “UNCOUNTABLE”

As a preliminary, it will be useful to appreciate what exactly “uncountable” means. The idea of “inability to be counted” is actually rather misleading, since there are many nouns – particularly abstract ones – about which a clear judgement cannot be made, so that different people would categorise them differently. Better than defining “uncountable” nouns in terms of their meaning is to do so according to their grammatical properties. There are two key ones: inability to be plural and inability to be singular after a(n) (or any of the words like it that are illustrated above).

Unfortunately, this definition begs the question of how we can know whether a noun can be plural or used after a(n). The answer is that we cannot reliably work it out just by looking at the word or considering its meaning – we must instead observe its use or consult a dictionary. However, meaning, despite its unreliability, can allow some fairly good guesses. For advice on this within these pages, see 14. Noun Countability Clues 1.

The importance of knowing a noun’s countability is that it determines some of its grammatical use. For example, countable nouns cannot normally be used in the singular without any other word before them, while uncountable ones have the restrictions mentioned above. For a detailed consideration of these differences, see 110. Nouns without “the” or “a”.

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COUNTABLE PARTNERS OF UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

There is a surprisingly wide range of countable nouns that can combine with an uncountable one in the way mentioned above. In many cases, the combinations are examples of “collocation” – the preference of particular words to combine with particular other words, sometimes without regard for meaning (see 16. Ways of Distinguishing Similar Words, #5).

Some uncountable nouns allow only one countable partner, while others allow a choice, the different possibilities often expressing different sizes or quantities. In the following lists, the choice-allowing nouns are underlined.

1. Size/Quantity-Neutral Partner Nouns

WITH CONCRETE UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

a flash/a bolt (of lightening)

an item (of baggage, clothing, equipment, furniture, jewellery, luggage, news)

a length (of rope, string, wood)

a means/form/mode (of identification, transport)

a member (of humanity)

a piece (of any “item” word above, plus bread, cake, chocolate, meat, rope, string, wood)

a quantity (of food, medicine, money)

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WITH ABSTRACT UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

an act (of charity, kindness, misbehaviour, rebellion, sabotage, spite)

an area (of activity, concern, interest)

a bout (of depression, flu, illness, madness, sickness)

a burst (of acceleration, activity, applause, prosperity, speed)

an episode (of experience, flu, illness, treatment)

a feeling (of anger, depression, despair, gratitude, happiness, hope, hopelessness, pleasure, sadness, sympathy)

a fit (of anger, depression, jealousy)

a flash (of anger, inspiration, recognition, sympathy)

an instance (of discrimination, disrespect, generosity, love, poverty, success, suffering, unrest)

an item (of gossip, information, interest, news, vocabulary)

an occurrence (of discrimination, trouble)

an outbreak (of conflict, disease, disorder, trouble, violence)

a piece (of advice, gossip, information, infrastructure, legislation, luck, magic, music, news, poetry, revision, support)

a round (of applause)

a spot (of bother, trouble) (INFORMAL)

a touch (of class, genius, innocence)

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2. Size/Quantity-Showing Nouns

WITH CONCRETE UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

Some quantity-showing nouns represent precise measurement units like kilo(gram), Examples are:

a kilo (of lamb, flour, rice, sugar)

a litre (of oil, petrol)

a pint (of beer, milk)

Other common combinations include:

a bag (of flour)

a bar (of chocolate, soap)

a bottle (of beer, milk, water)

a can (of beer, lemonade)

a cup (of cocoa, coffee, milk, tea, water)

a cupful (of flour, water)

a dose (of medicine)

a drop (of rain, water, whisky)

a glass (of beer, juice, lemonade, milk, water)

a grain (of rice, sand, sugar)

a jar (of honey, jam)

a loaf (of bread)

a lump (of sugar)

a piece (of food) [= tiny amount, e.g. between one’s teeth]

a pinch (of salt)

a portion (of food) [= allocation within a meal]

a ray (of light)

a sheet (of glass, metal)

a shower (of rain)

a slice (of bread, cake, meat)

a spoonful (of medicine, sugar)

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WITH ABSTRACT UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

The quantity-showing word here tends to be metaphorical (see 7. Metaphorical Meanings):

a chorus (of approval, criticism, dissent)

a degree (of hope, patience, respect, scepticism, success, uncertainty)

a dose (of optimism, realism, suffering)

a drop (of confidence, decency, wisdom)

a grain (of sense, truth)

a modicum (of patience, politeness, praise, respect, sense, similarity)

a moment (of anger, happiness, hesitation, indecision, inspiration, magic)

an ounce (of determination, sense)

a period (of indecision, rain, time, uncertainty, unrest)

a ray (of hope)

a slice (of luck)

a spell (of rain, uncertainty, unrest)

a sum (of money)

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ALTERNATIVES TO AN “OF” PHRASE

Besides of phrases, English has various other ways of enabling meanings of uncountable nouns to be expressed in a countable way.

1. Uncountable Nouns that can also be Used Countably

Numerous nouns can be used either countably or uncountably in order to express slightly different meanings (for four different types, see the Guinlist posts listed in 14. Noun Countability Clues 1). However, it is only a subgroup of these that can simply replace their uncountable form with the countable one in order to avoid adding a countable noun of the kind described above.

Most seem to belong to the group that mean uncountably a substance and countably an object made from it (see 43. Substance Locations). Take the noun fruit. In generalizations, we would use the uncountable substance word (Monkeys eat fruit), but to describe particular situations (assuming we could not identify the fruit exactly, as in The monkey was eating a mango), we could use the countable a fruit as well as a piece of fruit.

Only a few substance-location nouns have this use. They must mean “the object that people usually associate with the substance”. Thus, fruits are the most obvious objects associated with fruit. Other examples are coffees (= cups of coffee), beers, lights, rocks, ropes and sugars (= spoonfuls of sugar).

An example of the many substance-location nouns that do not meet this requirement is glasses (= “spectacles” or “glass drinking vessels”), which are not the same as pieces of glass or numerous other objects made of glass, such as windows, test tubes or earrings. The situation is similar with irons (= “heavy heatable objects for smoothing clothes”) and woods (= “clumps of trees”).

Similar to substance nouns are what the above-mentioned post calls “abstract substance nouns”, whose countable equivalent again indicates a location (also usually abstract). More of these location nouns seem usable to avoid noun-addition than concrete ones. Examples are a behaviour, a crime (better than an incidence of crime), a communication, a disaster, a disease, an effort, a history, an infection, a narrative, a pain, a shock, a success and a time. We might also include in this category mathematical property nouns like length, speed and volume, which in their countable form often precede of + NUMBER (see 163. Ways of Naming Properties).

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2. Countable Synonyms

Some uncountable nouns have a countable synonym that can replace them. Sometimes this simply names a subtype of the uncountable idea. For example, one could use a flask instead of a piece of equipment, a bus instead of transport and a shower instead of rain.

Sometimes, however, an uncountable noun has a more or less exact countable synonym. A classic example is work, replaceable by either a job (or jobs) or a task (or tasks). Other common pairs are:

accommodation – a place to stay

advice – a tip

baggage / luggage – bags (see 250. Synonym Pairs with Contrasting Grammar, #7).

legislation – laws

money / cash / change – coins / notes

news – stories

poetry – a poem

software – a program / app

surgery – an operation

travel – a journey

vocabulary – words.

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3. Paired Nouns without “of”

Instead of an item of vocabulary, it is probably more common to hear a vocabulary item, a phrase where the uncountable noun is more like an adjective (see 38. Nouns Used like Adjectives), and the link between the two nouns is sometimes what I have elsewhere called “material”, sometimes “function” (see 136. Types of Description by Nouns #1 and #12).

Most phrases with item seem to allow this alternative. Also notable are a lightening flash, a transport means, a chocolate bar, a flu bout, a disease outbreak, a sugar lump, a food portion and a rain shower.

There are also some combinations that must always be like this – they do not allow the of alternative. Examples are an email message, a learning point, a punctuation mark, a research project and a training session.

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: COUNTING THE UNCOUNTABLE

The following exercise is offered as a means of strengthening understanding and memorization of words presented above.

Exercise: Suggest as many ways as you can of completing each sentence below with the given uncountable noun meaning. Avoid saying “type(s)”. The first answer is provided as an example; full answers are given later.

1. And now we bring you a fresh … (NEWS)

ANSWER: (a) piece/item of news  (b) news item  (c) story

2. The agencies will be providing three … (SUPPORT) for each flood victim.

3. The government needs to encourage the use of every … (TRANSPORT)

4. This book presents the meanings of numerous … (VOCABULARY)

5. Everyone suffers numerous … (INDECISION) in their life.

6. Many … (SUCCESS) depend on generous investment.

7. Few … (SOFTWARE) are completely trouble-free.

8. Even a small … (INFRASTRUCTURE) can greatly increase efficiency.

9. Every … (*HOMEWORK) must be relevant to the course.

10. The computer will highlight each missing … (PUNCTUATION) in your work.

11. Anthropologists frequently classify every … (BEHAVIOUR) they observe.

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Answers

2(a) pieces / forms of support.

3. (a) form/means/type of transport (b) transport means.

4.(a) items of vocabulary (b) vocabulary items (c) words.

5. (a) moments of indecision.

6. (a) instances of success (b) successes.

7. (a) pieces/items of software (b) software items (c) apps/programs.

8. (a) piece of infrastructure.

9. (a) piece of homework (b) homework task.

10. (a) punctuation mark.

11. (a) episode/instance of behaviour (b) behaviour episode (c) behaviour